Maalatkaa pärekatot ja korjauttakaa sauhupiiput!

Savotar 64, 12.6.1912

Kevätpoutain tullessa ja roudan maasta lähdettyä ilmestyy päivälehtiin seisovaksi uutiseksi kertomukset maaseudulla olleista tulipaloista. Milloin on palanut asuinrakennus, milloin taasen karjakeittiön piipusta singahtanut kipinä on tuhkaläjäksi muuttanut karjakartanon. Valitettavasti ovat useimmiten huolimattomuus ja välinpitämättömyys olleet syynä näihin tulipaloihin — ei huolimaton valkeanpitely, vaan välinpitämättömyys pärekattojen ja sauhupiippujen hoidossa.

Pärekatto käy vanhempana, kuten tiedämme, vuoroin kastuen, vuoroin kuivuen, epätasaiseksi, kun päreet kiertyvät. Kosteus synnyttää samalla katolle ohuen, hienon sammalkerroksen. Kevätpoudilla kuivuu kattosammal hienoksi pölyksi, joka syttyy pienimmästäkin poukasta palamaan. Kun alla sattuu olemaan hieman kosteampaa sammalta, jääpi valkea tähän kuin taulaan kytemään, kunnes tuuli, aamuinen ilman väre puhaltaa kydön katolla ilmivalkeaan. Tässä syy, miksi useinkin karjakartanot palavat yöllä väen nukkuessa.

Tulenarka sammal on pärekatoista laastava pois ja jottei päreisiin syntyisi niin pian uutta sammalta, ovat katot maalattavat sellaisella värillä, joka kuolettaa sammalidut. Tehokkaimpia aineita ovat metallisuolat - tavallinen kupäri-, rauta- ja sinkkivihtrilli. Kun nämä suolat ovat veteen liukenevia, ei niitä voi yksistään käyttää sivellysaineena, vaan on sekotettava johonkin halpaan, osittain vettä kestävään sideaineeseen, kuten tavalliseen liedeväriin, n. k. kylmävesiväriin tahi n. k. vesilasiin. Kestävämmäksi tulee seos, jos metallisuoloista voidaan saada, jonkun helppohintaisen muun suolan avulla, syntymään n. k. kaksoissuola, sillä kaksoissuolat ovat vaikeammin veteen liukenevia - eikä sade voi niitä helposti huuhdella katosta pois. Tällaisia suoloja ovat: tavallinen keittosuvla, aluna, potaska, jopa tavallinen tuomaskuonakin. Samalla syntyy tällaisista suoloista päreen pinnalle ohut kartukerros, joka palamattomana suojaa päreen syttymistä, on siis tavallisena n. k. tulenkestävänä tahi voikeammin sanottuna, tultaehkäisevänä värinä.

Kokeiltu, hyvä pärekaton väriseos on seuraava:
6 litraa sammutettua kalkkia,
1 litra keittosuolaa ja
4 litraa vettä keitetään.
Keittäessä on päälle kohoava sakka kuorittava pois. Kiehuttua lisätään keitokseen 250 gr alunaa, 100 gr. rautavihtrilliä ja 150 gr potaskaa. Jotta seos saisi hauskemman värin, sekotetaan siihen tavallista ruotsalaista punamultaa tahi hienompaa englantilaista punasta. Kartu tulee katolle vahvemmaksi, jos siihen sekottaa vielä hienoa hiekkaa. Kalliimpia ovat niinkutsutut tervavärit pärekattojen maalauksessa - samalla voi niistä olla vaara tarjona, etta sideaineena värissä oleva kivihiiliterva-aines sisältää tavallisessa lämmössä haihtuvia tervayhdistyksiä, jotka haihtuessaan mukanaan imevät päreistä puun pihka-aineksia ja siten haurastavat katon.

Pärekaton maalauksesta on toinenkin hyöty. Kun katto on maalattu, eivät päreet kastu ja paisu niin paljon kuin maalaamattomassa katossa, eivätkä kattopäreet pääse niin paljon halkeilemaan. Tämän kautta pitää katto myöskin paremmin veden.

Pärekaton tulee maalatessa olla aivan kuivan ja kun katot paraiten kuivuvat näin keväällä, on paras kevätkesällä maalata katot. Ensiksi kovalla luudalla puhdistetaan katto pari päivää ennen maalausta, paikataan, jos niin on tarpeen ja sitten maalataan. Maalaus olisi uusittava ainakin joka viides kevät. Pärekaton maalaus maksaa keskimäärin 8-12 penniä neliömetri.

Kun routa kovan, lumettoman pakkastalven jälkeen häviää maasta, syntyy usein piippuihin halkeamia. Etenkin ovat vaaranalaisia tavalliset yksisauhutiehyeiset piiput - kuten juuri karjakeittiöiden piiput. Maan routautuessa kohoavat useimmiten paremminkin perustetuissa puurakennuksissa seinät ja niiden mukana vesi- ja välikatot. Kun ne ovat useinkin sopimattomasti yhdistetyt palomuureihin ja piippuihin, joutuvat nämäkin osat rakennuksessa liikkeelle. Piipun ohuihin ulkoseinämiin syntyy niinkutsuttuja kuivia rakoja, joissa laastiaines on irtaantunut tiileistä pois. Kun sitten sattuu kevätpuolella nokivalkea, singahtaa tällaisen kuivan sauman kautta kipinä välikaton täytteeseen tahi pärekaton sammalpäällystään. Tällainen pieni, syksyinen pakkasenpauke voi siis keväällä olla talolle tuhoisa. Paras on siis heti keväällä tarkastaa kaikki piiput ja jos ne ovat vielä rapaamatta, päällystää ne kalkkilaastilla. Missä piipuissa on vain ½ tiilen vahvuinen ulkoseinämä välikaton kohdalla, on se heti rautapeltisuojustalla vahvistettava. Paras on myöskin luoda kuiva sammaltäyte välikatolta piipun ympäriltä pois ja sotkea siihen sijalle savea. Uutta piippua muurattaessa on aina sauhutiehyeiden ulkoseinämät näissä kohdin rakennettava vähintäin3/4 tiilen vahvuiset. Missä taasen ei ole saatavana kestäviä piipputiiliä on keittiöiden sauhupiippuihin tahi höyrytorveihin, joiden kautta vesihöyry johdetaan ulos, sisäänmuurattava silattu saviputki, joka estää kosteuden imeytymisen piipputiileihin. Kostunut piippu rapautuu muuten perin pian talvella, kun tiilet pakkasella jäätyvät. Paras on myöskin verhota tällaiset huonoista tiilistä muuratut piiput pellillä.

Vaikkapa tulenvaara voidaan näin vähentää, voi se kuitenkin tulla taloon kutsumattomaksi vieraaksi. Siksi älä jätä rakennuksiasi palovakuuttamatta, äläkä säästele vuotuisia palovakuutusmaksuja, vaan vakuuta rakennukset täyteen arvoon!

- "Pellervossa" H. R. H.

Poisonous Fireworks

Manufacturer and builder 3, 1877

A young lady living at Bristol, N. H., died recently from the effects of inhaling gas from "red fire," burned during a young ladies' tableaux entertainment, in which she took part about six weeks before her death.

The above pyrotechnic mixture, "red fire," is quite a favorite at private tableaux exhibitions, but should be utterly banished from the parlor. Its fumes are highly poisonous; it is composed of nitrate of strontia, black sulphide of antimony, sulphur, and chlorate of potash; the crimson color is due to the strontia. The latter is a salt of the metal strontium, similar to the metals calcium, magnesium, and barium, of which only the latter is poisonous. Strontium, notwithstanding its compounds are not direct poisons, when its vapors are inhaled with those of antimony or other subetances which the pyrotechnist may put in, must be considered dangerous in all illy ventilated place.

The green fire made with barium is far more dangerous still, as barium is directly a poison. The same may be said of many other fireworks mixtures. The lime-light lanterns and pieces of glass of different colors may in many cases be substituted, by which a great variety of effects are obtained; and we would advise avoiding the use of these colored fires, except in large well ventilated localities, but rather substitute the colors produced by colored glass, at least in all cases where the desired effect may be attained. If not, take care to give the vapors a free escape, and never expose the performers by bringing the colored fire too near them.

Huulet Pariisissa.

Satakunnan Kansa 107, 11.5.1924

"Kasvot huutavat meitä vastaan. Usein ovat ne väritetyt tumman pronssin väriin - ollakseen sopivat nykyään muodissa olevaan mustalaistyyppiin - etenkin on poskien väri tumma, mutta ne voivat myöskin olla jotain aivan päinvastaista väriä. Ja huulet! Niin, huulet Pariisissa! Ensin näkyvät huulet ja sitten vasta nainen, jolle ne kuuluvat. Ne ovat kirkkaan punaiset kuten postilaatikko, purppuran punaiset, kardinaalipunaiset, kirsikan- tai zinoberin väriset. Mutta luonnollista punaväriä huulissa ei näe missään".

Näin kirjoittaa eräs lontoolainen naistoimittaja lehdessään. Hän väittää, että ihastuttavat pariisittaret eivät edes koeta pysyä luonnollisissa väreissä, kun he maalailevat itseään. Luonnon tulee muistuttaa taidetta, jota nuoret nykyaikaiset taiteilijat maalaavat Quartier Latinissa. Ja mitä kauempana ollaan luonnosta ja mitä lähempänä erikoisuutta, sitä suurempi on riemu. Nykyään on värin ja puuterin käyttö pariisittarelle kaikki kaikessa. Etenkin huuliväritanko. Eräässäkin hajuvesikaupassa Pariisissa voi ostaja valita 25 eri väriä huulimaalia. Kaikkia näitä värejä käytetään.

Mutta kun näihin 25 värivivahdukseen on väsytty, mitä sitten? Ehkä sitten otetaan joku uusi väri, löytyyhän kauniita vihreitä ja sinisiä värejä. Ehkä pian nähdään vihreitä huulia tai kylmän sinisiä?

Organinen kemia ja tavaraoppi.

Rakennustaito 17, 1.9.1916

Minulle on lähetetty "Arvostelijan kpl." tämännimistä, tri-insinööri Oskari Routalan kirjoittamaa ja Werner Söderström Oy:n kustantamaa teosta. Luulisi ensimmältä, että tällainen kirja on "ikävä" ja tarpeellinen ainoastaan tullivirkamiehille yms. Mutta äläpäs. Teosta selailtuani havaitsin sieltä paljon hyödyllistä, tarpeellista ja huvittavaakin.

Ensimmäisenä sattui silmääni sana "konjakki", jolla nimellä nykyoloissa erinäisistä syistä on kummallinen kaiku. Luin:

"Konjakki l. ranskalainen paloviina on luontaisesta viinistä tislaamalla saatu tuote. Nimensä on se saanut siitä, että sitä alkuaan on valmistettu Cognac-nimisessä kaupungissa. K. on keltaista, omituisenhajuista ja makuista ainetta, jonka alkoholimäärä vaihtelee 38—70 til. %:in välillä. Keltaisen värinsä ja erikoisen makunsa saa k. niistä tammitynnyreistä, joissa sitä säilytetään. - - -"

Silmäiltyäni samasta ryhmästä rommia, liköörejä, arrakkia ym. ja niiden väärentämistä koskevia tietoja, ryhdyin tarkastelemaan, enkö löytäisi kirjasta vieläkin (!) intressantimpia tietoja. Ja löysin. Tulokset esitän tässä lyhennettyinä:

Asfalttia eli maapikeä tavataan luonnossa useissa paikoin. Tunnetuimmat asfalttilajit ovat Kuolleenmeren seutuvilta saatava syrialainen a ja Trinidadin asfalttijärvestä saatava amerikalainen a. Paljon yleisempää kuin a. on asfalttikivi, joka on a:n sekaista kalkki- tai hiekkakiveä ja sisältää vain 10—12% asfalttia. A:n arvellaan syntyneen vuoriöljystä siten, että sen alhaalla kiehuvat osat ovat haihtuneet ja jäännös hapettunut. Puhdasta, luonnoll. asfalttia käytetään bentsoliin tai tärpättiin liuotettuna mustien a.-lakkojen eli vernissojen valmistukseen. A-kiveä käytetään katujen päällystykseen (ulkomailla). Se levitetään survottuna n. 5 cm:n paksuiseksi kerrokseksi betonialustalle ja puristetaan tiiviksi raskailla, kuumennetuilla jyrillä. Keinotekoiseksi asfaltiksi nimitetään petroli-, kivihiili-, ruohohiili- ja stearinipikeä Ne eroitetaan luonnoll. a:sta ominaisen, etenkin lievästi lämmitettäessä tunnettavan hajunsa avulla. Eivät vedä vertoja luonnoll. a:lle.

Bentsinisementti on rikkihiileen tai bentsiniin liuotettua kautsua ja guttaperkkaa.

Dynamiti on nitroglyseriniä, jonka on annettu imeytyä piimultaan. Nitroglyserini, öljymäinen, kellertävä, myrkyllinen, raskas ja ankara räjähdysaine (räjähtää lyönnin tai äkkinäisen kuumennuksen vaikutuksesta) valmistetaan tavallisesta glyserinistä, jota taas muodostuu vähäsen sokeripitoisten aineiden käymisestä etylalkokolin ohella. Sitä on siis tislaamattomissa alkoholijuomissa, kuten esim. oluessa ja viinissä. Luonnoll. rasvoissa ja rasvaöljyissä on glyseriniä kemiallisesti yhtyneenä rasvahappoihin. Teollisuudessa valmistetaan glyseriniä sivutuotteena saippua- ja kynttiläteollisuudessa.

Harmaa kalkki on puuetikkahappoista, harmaata, miellyttävän hajuista ainetta, joka sisältää n. 80% kalsiumasetalia.

Karbolineumia valmistetaan antraseniöljystä, jota taas saadaan tervasta.

Linoleumimattoja valmistetaan niin, että alapuolelta vernissalla sivellyn jutekankaan päälle puristetaan seos paksuksi hapatettua pellavaöljyä ja korkkijauhetta, johon on lisätty kolofonia tai kopalia. Linoleumikerroksen päälle painetaan erivärisiä kuvioita. L.-mattoja jossain määrin muistuttavia ovat linkrusta seinäpaperit, jotka sisältävät täyteaineena öljyn seassa sahajauhoa. Eräs laji linkrustatapettia on valmistettu niin, että harvan jutekankaan päälle on vernissa- ja hartsiseoksella kiinnitetty paksunpuoleista paperia, johon sitten puristetaan kuvioita.

Vernissa. Kun pellavaöljyyn kuumennettaessa lisätään erinäisiä metallioksideja tai -suoloja, saadaan vernissan tai öljyvernissan nimisenä tunnettua ainetta.

Tässä muutamia näytteitä tämän uuden tavaraopin lähes 2500 hakusanasta.

- Pyky.

From Household Worlds. Penny Wisdom.

The Living age 447, 11.12.1852

There is a huge heap of chemical refuse now near the banks of the Tyne at Gateshead, which is not only a commercial nothing, but the manufacturer, who unwillingly calls it his property, would most kindly greet any one who would take it of his hands; for he has to lease sundry acres of land for no other purpose than to deposit this refuse thereon. It is of such nothings as these that we would speak; and of the ingenuity which, from time to time, draws something therefrom. And we would also direct attention to a few misoellaneous examples of the useful application of materials long valued — the causing "a little to go a great way".

Schoolboys display great skill in breaking their slates. Shall they be allowed to continue the exercise of this interesting practice; or shall we invite them to use the new Wurtemberg sheet-iron slates? A manufacturer in that country has invented a mode of applying a surface-coating to sheet-iron, which enables it to take freely the mark of a slate-pencil; it is said to be much lighter, and much less liable to injury, than a common slate. If we have sheet-iron slates, why not sheet-iron paper! Baron von Kleist, the proprietor of some ironworks at Neudeck, in Bohemia, has lately produced paper of this kind, from which great things seem to be expected. It is remarkable for its extreme thinness, flexibility, and strength, and is entirely without flaws. It is used in making buttons, and various other articles shaped by stamping; and it is capable of receiving a very high polish. Whether the world is ever to see the Times printed on a sheet of iron, we must leave to sonic clairvoyants to determine; but, no sooner did our manufacturers become acquainted with this Bohemian product at the Great Exhibition, than they instantly set their wits to work to produce better and thinner sheet-iron than had before been made in England. In the Birmingham department, before the Exhibition closed, there made its appearance a book, about five inches by three, consisting of forty-four leaves of sheet-iron, the whole weighing about two ounces and a half. We are thus getting on; the ago of iron literature may yet arrive.

Our learned chemists have lately discovered that, in making or smelting iron, not less than seven-eighths of all the heat goes off in waste; only one-eighth being really wade available for the extrication of the metal from its stony matrix. What a sad waste of good fuel is here! what a provoking mode of driving money out of one's pocket! So thought Mr. Budd of the Ystalyfera iron-works in Wales. He found that the heat which escapes from an iron furnace is really as high as that of melting brass; and he pondered how he might compel this heat to render some of its useful services. He put a gentle check upon it, just as it was about to escape at the top of the furnace; he gently enticed it to pass through a channel or pipe which bent downwards; and gently brought it under the boiler of the steam-engine which worked the blowing-machine for the furnace. A clever device this; for this economized caloric heated the boiler without any other fuel whatever, and there was a saving of three hundred and fifty pounds in one year in the fuel for one boiler alone. Mr. Budd told all about this to the British Association, at Swansea, in 1848; and at Edinburgh, in 1850, he was able to tell them much more. He stated that he had applied the method to all the nine smelting-furnaces at the Ystalyfera Works; and that it bad also been applied at the Dundyvan Works in Scotland. The coal used in the Scotch works is of such a kind, that the wasted heat from one furnace is believed to be enough to heat the air for the hot-blast, and to work the blast engines for three furnaces. Mr Budd states that his plan enabled the Dundyvan proprietors to smelt ore with a ton and a quarter less coal to a ton of iron than by the old method; and he shows how this might rise to a saving of one hundred and thirty thousand pounds a year for the whole of Scotland. A pretty penny-saving this — a veritable creation of something out of a commercial nothing.

Horse-shoe nails, kicked about the world by horses innumerable, are not the useless fragments we might naturally deem them. Military men may discuss the relative merits of Minié rifles, and needle-guns, and regulation-muskets; but all will agree that the material of which the barrels are made should be sound and tough, and gunmakers tell us that no iron is so well fitted for this purpose as that which is derived from horseshoe nails, and similarly worn fragments. The nails are in the first instance made of good sound iron, and the violent concussions which they receive, when a horse is working over a stony road, give a peculiar annealing and toughening to the metal, highly beneficial to its subsequent use for gun-barrels.

An advertisement in the Times notifies that "The committee for managing the affairs of the Bristol Gas Light Company are ready to enter into a contract for a term, from twenty-first December next, for the sale of from sixteen thousand to twenty thousand gallons of ammoniacal liquor, produced per month at the works of the company." What is this ammoniacal liquor! It is a most unlovable compound, which time gasmakers must get rid of, whether it has commercial value or not. After coal has been converted into coke in the retorts of a gashouse, the vapors which escape are extraordinarily complex in their character; they comprise, not only the gas which is intended for illumination, but acids, and alkalies, and gases of many other kinds - all of which must be removed before the street-gas arrives at its proper degree of purity. By washing in clean water, and washing in lime-water, and other processes, this purification is gradually brought about. But then the water, which has become impregnated with ammonia, and the lime, which has become impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen and other gases, are dolefully fœtid and repulsive; and in the early history of gas-lighting these refuse products embarrassed time gasmakers exceedingly. But now the chemists make all sorts of good things from them. Time lady's smelling-bottle contains volatile salts made from this refuse ammonia, and sulphate of ammonia is another product from the same source; the tar, which is another of the ungracious consequences of gas-making, is now made to yield benzole — a remarkably volatile liquid — which manufacturers employ in making varnish, and perfumers employ in making that which is honored by the name of oil of bitter almonds, and housewives employ in removing grease spots, and economical ladies employ in cleaning white kid gloves; the naphthaline, which annoys the gas-maker by choking up his pipes, is made to render an account of itself in time form of a beautiful red coloring matter, useful in dyeing — in short, our gas works are a sort of magical Savings Bank, in which commercial nothings are put in, and valuable somethings taken out.

Mr. Brockeden has taught us how to make pencils out of dust. Our black lead pencils, as is pretty generally known, are made chiefly from Borrowdale plumbago, brought from a mine in Cumberland. This mine is becoming exhausted; and a question has arisen how the supply shall he kept up. Various compounds have been suggested in different quarters, but Mr. Brockeden has happily hit upon an expedient which promises wonders. Although pieces of plumbago are scarce, plumbago dust is tolerably plentiful, and Mr. Brockeden operates upon this dust. He presses a mass of the powder together, then draws out the air from beneath the particles by means of an air-pump, and then presses again with such enormous force as to convert the mass into a solid block, which can be cut into the oblong prisms suitable for pencils.

If a ton of lead contains three ounces of silver — one ounce in twelve thousand ounces — will it pay to dig out this silver, mechanically or chemically? Will it save a penny? Mr. Pattinson, a manufacturing chemist at Newcastle, says, and shows that it will; although, before his improvements were introduced, the attempt was a losing one, unless the lead contained at least twenty ounces of silver to the ton. Nearly all lead ore contains a trace of silver, which becomes melted and combined in the ingot or pig of lead. Vast are the arrangements which the manufacturers are willing to make to extricate this morsel of silver from the mass in which it is buried; huge furnaces and melting-vessels, and crystallizing vessels are provided, and elaborate processes are carefully conducted. The lead, itself, is all the better fur losing its silvery companion; while the silver makes its appearance afterwards in the form of dazzling teaservices, and such like.

The mention of Newcastle calls to mind our opening paragraph, relating to a certain table-land. of refuse. The history of this useless product carries with it the history of many other remarkable products — once useless, but now of great value. Thus it is. Sulphur is thrown into a "burning fiery furnace;" it burns away, and is converted into a gas called sulphurous acid; this, being combined with steam and water, becomes liquid sulphuric acid. So far good; there is no refuse. But let us go on. Common salt, or rather rock salt from Cheshire, is heated with this sulphuric acid in a furnace. A peculiar penetrating gas rises, which is muriatic acid; the soda-makers (of whom more presently) did not want this troublesome gas, and they therefore sent it up aloft through the chimneys. But the gardeners and farmers all around complained that the muriatic acid vapors poisoned their trees and plants, and then the manufacturers were driven to construct chimneys so lofty as to overtop our loftiest steeples, in order to carry away the enemy as far above the region of vegetation as possible. But good luck or good sense came to their aid; they devised a mode of combining the gas with water, and thus was produced muriatic acid or spirits of salt; and then this muriatic acid was made to yield chlorine, and the chlorine was made to form an ingredient in bleaching powder; so that, by little and little, the once dreaded muriatic acid gas has become a most respectable and respected friend to the manufacturer. Meanwhile, the salt and the sulphuric acid are undergoing such changes, by beatings and mixings of different kinds, that they both disappear from the scene; the useful product left behind is soda, so valuable in glassmaking, and soap-making, and other processes; the useless product is an earthy substance, consisting of calcium and sulphur, which nobody can apply to any profitable purpose, nobody will buy, and nobody even accept as a gift. At a large chemical work near Newcastle, this product has been increasing at such a rapid rate that it now forms a mass six or eight acres in extent, and thirty or forty feet high; it is a mountain or rather a tableland of difficulties. Here, then, we see how chemical manufacturers are saving a penny out of some of their refuse, and looking wistfully towards the day when they may perchance save a penny out of this monstrous commercial nothing.

Coal proprietors are, perhaps necessarily, very wasteful people. They accumulate around tho mouths of their pits large heaps of smell coal, which, formerly, rendered service to no one; and in some parts of the country they burn this coal simply to get rid of it. But, thanks to the Legislature, it sometimes does good by interfering in manufacturing affairs. It ordained that locomotives should not send forth streams of smoke into the air, and we are thus freed from a nuisance which sadly affects our river-steamers and steamer-rivers; while, at the same time, coke being used as a non-smokable fuel, and the supply front the gasworks being too small, coke-makers have looked to the heaps of small coal at the pit's mouth; and the result is, that thousands of locomotives are now fed with coke made from the small waste coal at the collieries. The railway companies get their coke cheaper than formerly; the coal owner makes something out of a (commercial) nothing; and the ground around the coalpits is becoming freed from an incumbrance. And what the coalmakers would leave if they leave anything, the artiticia. fuelmakers will buy; for in most of time patent fuels II, Mr brought under public notice, coal dust is one of the ingredients.

How to get a pennyworth of beauty out of old bones and bits of skin, is a problem which the French gelatinemakers have solved very prettily. Does the reader remember somegorgeous sheets of colored gelatine in the French department of the Great Exhibition? We owed them to the slaughter-houses of Paris. Those establishments are so well organized and conducted, that all the refuse is carefully preserved, to be applied to any purposes for which it may be deemed fitting. Very pure gelatine is made from the waste fragments of skin, bone, tendon, ligature, and gelatinous tissue of the animals slaughtered in the Parisian abattoirs; and thin sheets of this gelatine are made to receive very rich and beautiful colors. As a gelatinous liquid, when melted, it is used in the dressing of woven stuffs, and in the clarification of wine; and, as a solid, it is cut into threads for the ornamental uses of the confectioner, or made into a very thin white and transparent sheets of papier glacé for copying drawings, or applied in the making of artificial flowers, or used as a substitute for paper on which gold printing may be executed. In good sooth, when an ox has given us our beef, and our leather, and our tallow, his career of usefulness is by no means ended; we can get a penny out of him as long us there is a scrap of his substance above ground.

Dyers and calicoprinters, like manufacturing chemists, have frequently accumulations of rubbish about their premises, which they heartily wish to get rid of at any or no price; and at intervals, by a new item added to the general stuck of available knowledge, one of these accumulations becomes suddenly a commercial something. The dye material called madder will serve to illustrate this as well us anything else. Madder is the root of a plant which yields much coloring matter steeping in water; and, after being so treated, the spent madder is thrown aside as a useless refuse. The refuse is not rich enough for manure; no river conservators will allow it to be thrown into a running stream; and the dyer is thus perforce compelled to give it a homestead somewhere or other. But some clear-headed experimenter has just found out that, actually, one-third of the coloring matter is left unused in the so-called spent madder; and he has shown how to make a pretty penny and an honest penny out of it, by the aid of certain let acids.

Whether any perfumed lady would be disconcerted at learning the sources of her perfumes, each tidy must decide for herself; but it seems that Mr. De la Rue and Doctor Hoffman, in their capacities as jurors of the Great Exhibition, have made terrible havoc among the perfumery. They have found that many of the scents said to be procured from flowers and fruits, are realty produced from anything but flowery sources the perfumers are chemists enough to know that similar odors may he often produced from dissimilar substances, and if the half-crown bottle of perfume really has the required odor, the perfumer does not expect to be asked what kind of odor was emitted by the substance whence the perfume was obtained. Now, Docter Lyon Mayfair, in his summary of the jury investigation above alluded to, broadly tells us that these primary odors are often meet unbearable. "A peculiarly fœtid oil, termed fusil oil, is formed in making brandy and whiskey; this fusil oil, distilled with sulphuric acid and acetate of potash, gives the oil of pears. The oil of apples is made from the same fusil oil, by distillation with sulphuric acid and bichromatc of potash. The oil of pineapples is obtained from us product of the action of putrid cheese on sugar, or by making as soap with butter, and distilling it with alcohol and sulphuric acid; and is now largely employed in England in making pineapple ale. Oil of grapes and oil of cognac, used to impart the flavor of French cognac to British brandy, are little else than fusil oil. The artificial oil of bitter almonds, now so largely employed in perfuming soap and for flaworing confectionary, is prepared by the action of nitric acid on the fœtid ells of gastar. Many a fair forehead is damped with eau de millefleurs, without knowing that its easential ingredient is derived from the drainage of cowhouses." In all such cases as these, the chemical science involved is, really, of a high order, and the perfume produced is a bona-fide perfume, not one whit less sterling than if produced from fruits and flowers. The only question is one of commercial honesty, in giving is name no longer applicable, and charging too highly for a cheaply produced scent. This mode of saving a penny is chemically right, but commercially wrong.

The French make a large quantity of sugar from beet-root; and in the processes of manufacture there remains behind a thick, black, unctuous molasses, containing much sugar, but from other causes impregnated with a nauseous taste and a moat disagreeable smell. Men will not eat it, but pigs will; and so to the pigs it has gone, until M. Dubranfaut showed (as he has lately done) that this molasses is something better than pig's meat. He dissolves, and decomposes, and washes, and clarifies, until he ends by producing a kind of eau sucré, a beautifully clear and colorless syrup or sugar-liquid, containing nearly the whole of the saccharine principle from the offensive and almost valueless molasses.

How can we make one kind of paint or liquid produce many different colors, and this with an amount of material almost beneath the power of man to weigh or measure? Mr. De la Rue has solved this question by the production of his beautiful iridescent and opalescent paper. Both mechanically and optically, the production of these papers is strikingly interesting. Water is poured into a flat vessel; and, when quite tranquil, a very minute quantity of spirit varnish is sprinkled upon the surface; this, by a species of attraction between the two liquids, spreads out on all sides, and covers the whole surface in a film of exquisite thinness. A sheet of paper, or a card-board, or any other article, is then dipped fairly into the water, and raised gently with that surface upper-most which is to receive the colored adornment; it lifts up the film of varnish from off the surface of the paper, and this film becomes deposited on the paper itself. The paper is held in an inclined position, to allow the water to drain off from beneath the film; and the varnish then remains permanent on the surface of the paper. Now, the paper thus coated with colorless varnish exhibits the prismatic tints with exquisite clearness; the film of varnish is so extremely thin — so far beneath anything that could be laid on with a brush or pencil — that it reflects light on the same principle as the soap-bubble, exhibiting differences of color on account of minute differences in the thickness of the film at different parts; and not only so, but the selfsame spot exhibits different tints, according to the angle at which we view it. It is a lovely material, and lovely things may be produced front it. We cannot speak or it as producing something out of nothing; but his a means of producing a beautiful result with a marvellously small expenditure of materials.

The clinkers, ashes, or cinders, which remain in furnaces after metallurgic operations have been completed, may appear to be among the most useless of all useless things. Not so, however. If they contain any metal, there are men who will ferret it out by some means or other. Not many years since, the ashes of the coke used in brass-furnaces were carted away as rubbish; but shrewd people have detected a good deal of volatilized copper mixed up therewith; and the brass-makers can now find a market for their ashes as an inferior kind of copper ore. It needs hardly to be stated that all sorts of filings and raspings, cuttings and clippings, borings and turnings, and odds and ends in the real metallic form, are all available for remelting, whatever the metal may be — all is grist that comes to this mill. If metal be a cheap one, it will not pay to extricate a stray percentage from ashes and clinkers; but if it be one of the more costly metals, not only are all scraps and ashes, and skimmings preserved, but particles are sought for in a way that may well astonish those to whom the subject is new. Take gold as an example. There are Jew dealers and Christian dealers also, who sedulously wait upon gilders and jewellers at intervals, to buy up everything (be it what it may) which has gold in or upon it. Old and useless gilt frames are bought: they are burnt, and the ashes so treated as to yield up all their gold. The fragments and dust of gold, which arise during gilding, are bought and refined. The leather cushion which the gilder uses is bought when too old for use, for the sake of the gold particles which insinuate themselves into odd nooks and corners. The old leather apron of it jeweller is bought; it is a rich prize, for, in spite of its dirty look, it possesses very auriferous attractions. The sweepings of the floor of a jeweller's workshop are bought; and there is probably no broom, the use of which is stipulated for with more strictness than that with which such a floor is swept. In short, there are in this world (and at no time so much as the present) a set of very useful people, who may he designated manufacturing scavengers; they clear away refuse which would else encumber the ground, and they put money into the pockets both of buyers and sellers; they do effectually create a something out of a commercial nothing.

How to save a penny by using dairy drainage, and slaughter-house drainage, and stable drainage, and street drainage, and house drainage, and old hones, and old rags, and spent tan, and fax steepwater — how to create value by using such refuse as manure for fields and gardens - one of the great questions of the day, which no one who takes up a newspaper can fail to find elucidated in some form or other. Chemistry is hero the grand economizer. Chemistry is indeed Nature's housewife, making the best of everything. "The clippings of the travelling tinker," as Dr. Playfair well says in one of his lectures, "are mixed with the parings of horses' hoofs from the smithy, or the cast-off woollen garments of the inhabitants of a sister isle, and soon afterwards, in the form of dyes of brightest blue, grace the dress of courtly dames. The main ingredient of the ink with which I now write was possibly once part of the broken hoop of an old beer barrel. The bones of dead animals yield the chief constituent of lucifer matches. The dregs of port wine — carefully rejected by the port wine drinker in decanting his favorite beverage — are taken by him in the morning, in the form of Seidlitz powders, to remove the effects of his debauch. The offal of the streets and the washings of coal-gas reappear carefully preserved in the lady's smelling bottle, or are used by her to flavor Mane mange for her friends."

Tavalliset ruiskutusaineet tuhohyönteisiä vastaan.

Puutarha 6, 1914

Taistelussa tuhohyönteisiä vastaan on ruiskutus hyönteisiä tappavilla aineilla saanut lavean käytännön, ei vähimmin siitä syystä, että se keino useimmin on mukava, joutuisa ja halpa. Yhtä vähän kuin voidaan käyttää samaa lääkettä ihmisten erilaisiin tautiin, yhtä vähän voidaan tuhohyönteisten taistelussa toivoa yleisainetta. Onnellista kyllä emme kuitenkaan tarvitse käyttää vallan monta keinoa, sillä monet niistä voidaan kukin kerrallaan samalla menestyksellä käyttää suurta hyönteisjoukkoa vastaan.

Hyönteisiä tappavat ruiskutusnesteet jaetaan kahteen ryhmään maha- ja kontakti eli kosketusmyrkkyihin. Edellisiä tulevat hyönteiset nauttimaan syödessään ruiskutettuja kasviosia, jälkimäiset vaikuttavat, jos vain koskevat elävän ruumista. Mahamyrkkyihin, joihin ensi sijassa laskemme arsenikkimyrkyt, esim. keisarinvihreässä, käytetään yksinomaan hyönteisiä vastaan, joilla löytyy purevia suuosia, kuten toukkia, kovakuoriaisia y. m. Kontaktimyrkyt käytetään taas etupäässä hyönteisiä vastaan, joilla on imeviä suuosia esim. lehtitäitä, lehtikirppuja ja kilpitäitä vastaan. Näihin lasketaan sellaiset keinot kuten kvassia, petrooliemulsiooni ja tupakkadekoktit. Seuraavassa jätetään lyhyt selostus tavallisimmista ruiskutusnesteistä, niiden valmistamisesta ja käyttämisestä.

Keisarivihreä (Schweinfurter vihreä, Pariisivihreä) on vaalean vihreä väriaine. Pääaine siinä on kaksinaissuola, arseniikkihappoista ja etikkahappoista kuparioksiidia. Sitä paitsi löytyy siinä liikana usein vapaata arseniikkihappoisuutta, valkoinen pulveri, jonka läsnäolo voidaan huomata käyttämällä suurennuslasia. Vedessä liukenematon kaksinaissuola on kasville vaaraton. Vapaa arseniikkihappoisuus sitä vastoin voi, jos sitä löytyy riittävässä määrässä, vihreisiin kasviosiin aikaan saada polttopilkkuja erilaisen vahvoja. Keisarivihreän, voidakseen olla käyttökelpoista ruiskutustarkoituksiin, täytyy sisältää vähintäin 50% arsenikkihappoisuutta sidotussa muodossa, sekä olla mahdollisimmin puhdas vapaasta arseniikkihappoisuudesta. Tehdäkseen tehottomaksi viimemainitun, lisätään kalkkia, joka vapaalla arsoniikkihappoisuudella muodostaa vedessä hyvin vaikeasti liukenevan yhdistyksen. Mieluummin on käytettävä aivan vasta sammutettua kalkkia, koska sammutettu, jos se on vanhempi ja on ollut kosteuden vaikuttamana, on muuttunut hiilihappoiseksi kalkiksi tai liiduksi, ja on silloin vähemmin sovelias. Jos ollaan pakotettuna käyttämään sammutettua kalkkia, on paljous tehtävä 2—3 kertaa suuremmaksi kuin muuten.

Ruiskutukseen nakertavia hyönteisiä vastaan käytetään tavallisesti ei enempää kuin ½ à 1 gr keisarivihreätä + 1 à 2 gr vasta sammutettua kalkkia litraa kohden. Sekoittamisessa sekoitetaan ensiksi molemmat pulverit vähempään vesipaljouteen paksuksi puuroksi, koska ne muuten helposti muodostavat paakkuja tai uivat vedenpinnalla. Kun keisarivihreä on jotensakin raskasta, painuu se vedessä. On sentakia välttämätöntä, että neste ruiskuttaessa sekoitetaan. Sen myrkyllisyyden takia täytyy olla hyvin varovainen, erittäin mitä koskee kuivaa keisarivihreätä. Sekoitettuna veteen yllämainituissa suhteissa on myrkytys-mahdollisuus kuitenkin hyvin pieni.

Keisarinvihreän ostoksissa on käännyttävä taattuihin kauppoihin. Vähemmän väliäpitämättömät liikemiehet ehkä myisivät jotain muuta keisarivihreätä muistuttavia väriaineita, esim. espanjalaista vihreätä tai zinkkivihreätä, molemmat arseeniikki vapaita, vähemmin myrkyllisiä ja niinmuodoin ruiskutustarkoitukseen kelpaamattomia.


Kvassia Kvassialastut eräästä puumaisesta etelä-amerikkalaisesta pensaasta. Saadaan apteekista tahi värikaupasta. Lastuissa löytyy karvasainetta n. k. kvassinia, joka on näyttäytynyt olevan erinomainen n. k. kontaktimyrkky hyönteisiä vastaan, imevillä suuosilla, erittäin lehtitäitä vastaan.

Ruiskutusneste valmistellaan seuraavasti: ¼ kg kvassialastuja pannaan 5 1 vettä ja saa seisoa yön. Seuraavana päivänä keitetään neste, jos niin tahdotaan, jonka jälkeen lastut siivilöidään pois. Nesteeseen lisätään sitten noin ¼ kg suopaa, joka myöskin on liuennetty 5 litraan vettä. Näin saatu sekoitus voidaan sitten säilyttää suljetussa astiassa pitkän ajan, muuttamatta ominaisuuksiansa. Käyttäessä vetelöidään se 30—40 1 vettä.

Siemenkauppioilta voidaan saada väkevöittyä kvassiaestraktia, joka suoranaisesti voidaan sekoittaa suovalla ja vedellä. Kvassianeste on näyttäytynyt vaarattomalta kasville, sekä lienee vaaraton ihmisillekin. Sentähden on koetettu käyttää kvassiaruiskutusta myöskin nakertavia hyönteisiä vastaan, jos ne esiintyvät sellaiseen aikaan, jolloin hedelmäraakila voidaan käyttää ja jolloin mieluimminvältetään ruiskutusta myrkyllisellä keisarivihreällä. Myöskin sellaisia hyönteisiä vasten kuten esim. karviaismarjatoukkaa, on kvassianeste antanut hyvän tuloksen.


Petrooli. Kontakti myrkkynä imeviä hyönteisiä vastaan on petrooli emulsionissa suovan ja muiden aineiden kanssa näyttäytynyt olevan erinomaisen vaikuttavaa. Keinossa on kuitenkin erityinen vaara kasville, joista toiset ovat erittäin arkoja. Petrooliemulsionin sekoitus vaihtelee sentähden hyvin paljon erilaisille kasveille, ja tehdään viisaasti, jos tehdään koeruiskutuksia nähdäkseen, ettei se petroolipitoisuus, jota on aiottu käyttää, ole liian väkevä. Esimerkkinä petrooliemulsionin eri vaikutuksesta mainittakoon, että siemenhedelmäpuut ovat kivihedelmäpuita paljon arempia. Vielä on emulsionin vaikutukset eri kuivana ja kosteana ilmana, se tunkee helpommin läpi kuoren talvella kuin keväällä kohta ennen puhkeamista y. m.

Petrooliemulsionia valmistetaan seuraavasti: 123 gr suopaa liuennetään noin ½ litrassa vettä. Sitten lisätään 2 1 ei vallan kylmää petroolia, jonka jälkeen seos pumputaan tai kirnutaan yhteen. Hetken kuluttua lisätään vielä ½ l lämpöistä vettä, jonka jälkeen kirnuaminen jatkuu, kunnes suopa ja petrooli ovat sekoitetut maidon tapaiseksi nesteeksi.

Tämä väkevöity emulsioni, joka, jos se pidetään viileässä paikassa, voi pysyä kauan hyvänä, käytetään ainoastaan lehdettömissä puissa. Kun kysymykseen tulee vihreitten kasviosien ruiskuttamista, ohennetaan se, niin että se tulee sisältämään 2%, korkeintaa 4% petroolia. Vetelöimiseen käytettäköön mieluimmin pehmeätä vettä, esim. sadevettä. Ruiskuttaminen tapahtuu sopivimmin aamulla ja illalla, ei koskaan auringonpaisteessa.


Tupakka on hyvä kontaktimyrkky ja ruiskutetuille kasveille aivan vaaraton. Ruiskutusnesteiksi voidaan käyttää kaikkein halvimpia tupakkalajia. Parasta on, jos tätä ainetta käytetään suuremmassa määrässä valmistaessa väkevöityä tupakka-ekstraktia. Pannaan tupakkaa kuumaan veteen, jonka jälkeen se saa hautua siinä siksi kauan, kunnes neste tulee tummanruskeaksi ja haisee väkevältä. Tästä ekstraktista käytetään sitten 1—2 litraa 100 litraan vettä. Jos yksi tai pari kiloa suopaa lisätään, tulee neste tepsivämmäksi.

(Trädgården).

Paints made of Copper. Ferrocyanide of Copper.

Manufacturer and builder 10, 1870

This is a comparatively new pigment, and as yet has received no name for common use. We are, therefore, under the necessity of designating it by its scientific name, which, at the same time, reveals its chemical composition.

In the same way as the four so-called elementary halogens — chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine — combine with metals and form compounds, some of which are pigments, the compound halogens — cyanogen, ferrocyanogen, ferridcyanogen, sulphocyanogen, etc. — combine with metals, and some of their compounds are likewise pigments. Thus, the combination of iron with the compound halogen ferrocyanogen, forms Prussian blue, and the combination of copper with the same ferrocyanogen forms the red pigment now in question.

To understand the nature of this ferrocyanogen we must first recall that cyanogen is a compound of nitrogen and carbon, 14 parts of nitrogen, by weight, being combined with 12 of carbon. But, since the symbol of nitrogen, N, stands for 14 parts by weight of this substance, and the symbol C, for 6 parta of carbon, (see MANUFACTURER AND BUILDER, VOL. II, page 98,) the cyanogen is expressed by the formula, N C₁. Since this compound, however, behaves, to all intents and purposes, as a single element, a separate symbol, Cy, has been adopted, and may be used as well as N C₂, both meaning the same thing.

This substance will, as already remarked, cmnbine with metals; and it it worthy of notice here that it forms, with gold and silver, soluble salts, from which the most common solutions are made for gilding and silvering by the electro-plating process.

But the most remarkable circumstance is, that when this cyanogen, Cy, or N C₂, (which stands for 26 parts,) combines with 27 parts of iron, which are expressed by the symbol Fe, it forms a new compound. Fe Cy, called ferrocyanogen, which, again, behaves like an elementary substance, and enters into new combinations with metal, forming a new series of compounds called ferrocyanides.

In order to make the ferrocyanide of copper, we take a solution of about 9 parts of the common yellow prussiate of potash, which is a ferrocyanide of potassium, and mix it with a solution of nearly 4 parts of blue vitriol or sulphate of copper. The result is a precipitate which, when washed and dried, possesses a violet-red color of a very pleasing shade; and this, when diluted with white, becomes pink. Although the color of this pigment is not dark, it is highly intense, and will bear a considerable amount of dilution with chalk white, for instance. In this way it can be manufactured into an excellent watercolor, of much purer appearance than can be obtained from the mixture of other pigments.

For the benefit of students in chemistry we append here the formula of its manufacture, somewhat simplified:
Cu O₂ S O₃ + K, F Cy.
Result, K O, S O₃ + Cu F Cy.
Or, sulphate of potash + the new pigment.

This color has never yet been made on a large scale, nor even, up to the present time, introduced to the trade. We think it a valuable one, and, believing its adoption and introduction would be profitable, too recommend it for experiment to those interested.

The Manufacture of Vitriols. IV.

Manufacturer and builder 10, 1870

Of the sulphurets of copper occurring in nature, chaleocite, covellite, and chalcopyrite are the best suited for the manufacture of blue vitriol. Out of the two former the copper can be extracted in the form of vitriol, in the cheapest and completest manner, by roasting in reverberatory furnaces and subsequent leaching with hot water, strongly acidulated with sulphuric acid. A portion of the copper, already converted into a sulphate of copper by the carefully-conducted roasting process, will, in this way, be extracted immediately by the water, while the portion which has become oxide of copper by roasting forms sulphate of copper with the sulphuric acid, and passes into aqueous solution. The small amount of iron which is nearly always present in the above two minerals, though it is sometimes not in their crystallized varieties, will not pass into solution, as oxide of iron becomes, after exposure to red-heat, insoluble in sulphuric acid; and a very pure vitriol can thus be secured.

To produce sulphate a copper, however, by the roasting process alone, without any addition of sulphuric acid in subsequent operation, chalcopyrite is the most desirable mineral. In this process the copper pyrites is first pulverized, and, without previous separation from the gangue, (such as is almost always messy for smelting operations,) it can be directly introduced into the roasting furnace. This is one reason why copper ores too poor to be treated for metallic copper (in which case the expense of the necessary mechanical concentration before smelting is often fatal to profitable operations,) may be in many cases used to advantage for the manufacture of vitriol.

The furnaces employed are always reverberatories, either open-hearth or muffle-furnaces. They are generally very long seed comparatively narrow; or two or more are placed one above the other, and so constructed that the flame and heat pass successively from the lowest to the highest before the waste gases enter the flues leading to the acid-chambers or to the chimney. The charge can at intervals be lowered from the upper furnace into the one below, a new charge being introduced into the highest hearth, and thus a continuous renting secured. In the flues are dampers for the regulation of the temperaturem which must be as much as possible in the power of the workmen. The object of the above management of the roasting furnaces is, on the one hand, economy of heat, and, on the other hand, a gradual preparation of the ore and its prolonged contact with the developed sulphurous acid gas. The heat necessary for the process is very low, and little fuel, except for the test heating of the furnace, is required. In fact, the burning sulphur supplies even more than is desired during the roasting, so that the dampers must be partly closed, in order to retard the otherwise too rapid draught, and to keep the sulphurous acid in contact with the ore as long as possible. By stirring the ore, either by hand or by machinery, new surfaces are exposed from time to time, and in order to make these as large as possible, the ore is thrown up in ridges across the furnace. The whole process is based on its well-known relations of the temperatures at which sulphates of iron and copper are formed and decomposed. It is not necessary to enter here into a detailed statement of the theory of this beautiful metallurgical process, which has been to ably expounded by Plattner, Keel, and others: suffice it to say thet all explanations agree as to the final results established in practice. The sulphate of iron it formed long before even a cherry-redd heat is reached in the furnace; at this temperature the sulphate of iron is decomposed, the sulphurons acid developed from the iron salt aiding materially to produce, in conjunction with that from the oxidation of the disulphide of copper, the sulphate of copper, while the iron remains as an oxide. If the heat be carried higher, the sulphate of copper will also be decomposed; and it requires therefore much attention, and the frequent taking of samples, to maintain the correct degree of heat. The formation of sulphate of iron takes place when the double reverberatory is used in the upper furnace. In the muffle-furnace (which is charged at the flue-end, and the charge gradually moved toward the fire-bridge) sulphate of iron is found at about the middle. In the lower furnace, (when two are used,) or in the part of the muffle nearest to the fire-bridge, the copperas is decomposed and the sulphate of copper formed.

The temperature in the furnaces has been correct, and the ore nearest to the fire-bridge must be drawn out, when a sample is taken, and, after cooling a little, brought in contact with water, gives an abundant deep blue solution, without greenish tinge. The sample is taken by withdrawing from the furnace, opposite the working-door nearest to the fire-bridge, and about half way across, a portion of the ore with a small test-shovel, or large spatula. It is then put, in the form of a ridge or dam, across a porcelain saurcer, care being taken that on at least one side of this ridge no ore is scattered. At the opposite side, after the temple has partially cooled, water is added in very small quantity. This first water is absorbed by the anhydrous sulphate of copper; but if a little more is added on the same side, a clear blue concentrated [] of copper-vitriol will at once appear on the other side of the ridge. This solution ia then diluted by an additional supply of water, in order to permit of better judgment in regard to the color, and of an easier discovery of a greenish tinge, which would annouce the presence of iron-vitriol in small quantity. A dark green color of the solution shows the presence of much copperas; while a dirty, pale green assures us that no appreciable quantity of blue vitriol has yet been formed. In both cases, the roasting must be continued until the sample presents the desired characteristics. If the heat has been carried too high near the fire-bridge, the solution obtained from the temple presents a light blue color already with the firth addition of water, and the presence of much oxide of copper is thus revealed to us. This should never occur, and can not, if samples are taken at the proper intervals, of five to ten minute, toward the latter part of the process. But if this undesirable result has been reached, the oxide of copper can only be transformed into vitriol by direct leaching with hot, diluted sulphuric acid, or by smelting the charge, together with unrouted copper pyrites, into matte, which must then be pulverized and parts through a more careful roasting process. If a satisfactory result has been reached in the roasting process, the hot ore is drawn out into iron cars, and dumped into lead-lined leaching vessels. These have double bottoms, (over the upper perforated one of which coarse cloth is spread,) and are half filled with water. Here the ore remains for twelve houra being occasionally stirred, and at the expiration of that time the blue solution is drawn of by means of wooden faucets at the bottom. It undergoes then the usual operations of settling, concentration, (if necessary,) and crystallization, as described in a former article. The crystals obtained after the first concentration are very pure vitriol; a product mixed to a small degree with sulphide of iron is obtained by concentrating the mother-liquor, and crystallizing again; and out of the secondmother-liquor the copper must be precipitated by iron, as another crystallization would produce vitriol too impure for the market. The cement copper is either dissolved in sulphuric acid and manufactured into vitriol or sold in metallic form. Where smelting-works are connected with the establishment, the cement copper is added in the black copper smelting.

For the processs above described, only such pyrites as contain only sulphurets of iron and copper should be employed, since these give, without troublesome and expenelve purifications, the best product, Copper-vitriol is, however, often made from artificially-prepared sulphurets of copper; and in tide case the original impurities of the ore, being incidentally removed in the preparatory treatment, exert no injurious influence. Of the processes introduced for this manufacture, two are especially prominent. In one of these, the artificial sulphuret is produced by heating old copper (sheet-copper, scraps, etc.) in a reverberatory, and afterward adding sulphur while the draught is cut off. In the other, the sulphuret is produced in the regular course of copper-smelting in the shape a matte. In the latter case, the highest grade mattes are the most suitable, as they contain the least iron.

To convert old copper into sulphuret, it is, as we have said, heated in reverberatories, and, when red-hot, about one sixth of its weight of coarsely pulverized sulphur is added, while the flues are shut. The disulphide of copper formed on the surface of the copper sheets is taken ont, and the remaining copper is again treated as before. The resulting disulphide is pulverized and roasted in the same furnace. Much sulphate is formed; but owing to the absence of sulphate of iron, or some other sulphate which is decomposed at a lower temperature than sulphate of copper, much oxide of copper is also formed. It is, therefore, necessary to leach the product of the roasting with dilute sulphuric acid, in order to extract all the copper. The solution undergoes subsequently the operations of settling, etc., and a very pure blue vitriol is the result. In order to make sulphate of copper from furnace product, the highest grade matte from the last smeltings are generally selected, because they contain the least foreign subetances. They must be very finely pulverized before roasting, and the product must also be leached with dilute sulphuric acid in order to dissolve the oxide of copper which, besides the sulphate, is formed in large quantity. The final product is pure vitriol, specially from the two first crystallizing operations. The last mother-liquor is treated by the manipulations we have described in connection with the manufacture of vitriol from copper pyrites.

In the regular course of operation, copper vitriol is produced in many establiehments as a by-product, in various other ways than those above mentioned; but none of these are imitable where vitriol manufacture is the main object of the works, and we than therefore omit them here.

At present, sulphate of copper commands a very high price in the market compared with the value of the raw material; and it is now, in most localitice in this country, more profitable to make blue vitriol from the ore, or even from matte, than to sell the ingot-copper. Only excessive charges for transportation may alter this fact, since the bulk of the vitriol is four times as great as that of the ingots; but where freights are at all reasonable, (indeed, if the tramportation tee market does not exceed 1½ cents per pound,) this manufacture can scarcely fail to be extremely profitable.

Hiusten harmaantuminen.

Pirtti 13, 4.7.1914

Oikeastaan woidaan hywin wähän tehdä hiusten harmaantumisen estämiseksi eikä warsinaisesti mitään wärin muuttamiseksi entiselleen, ainakaan sitten, kun wuodet owat tukassa tuhotyönsä alottaneet. Wälistä saattaa tapahtua, että nuoret ihmiset menettäwät tukanwärin sairauden tai suurien surujen wuoksi, ja silloin woi olla toiweita parannuksesta.

Hiusten harmaantuminen johtuu siitä, että niissä löytywä wäriaine jostakin syystä häwiää tai ei waihdu kuten ennen. Se aiheutuu siis häiriöistä aineenwaihtumisessa.

Ainoa tapa, millä woidaan hiusten harmaantuminen estää — jollei tahdota turwautua epäluotettawiin ja usein wahingollisiin wärjäyskeinoihin — on pitää päänahka puhtaana ja wälttää kaikkia turmiollisia aineita. Wiiwyttääkseen niin kauwan kuin mahdollista tukan harmaantumista, on wältettiiwä liian usein pesemästä sitä. Miehet tulewat harmaapäisiksi nopeammin kuin naiset, senwuoksi, että he useammin pesewät tukkaansa.

Kun tukkaa pestään, on käytettäwä hywin wähän saippuaa ja lämmintä wettä sekä wältettäwä champoneeraukeinoja, jotka tekewät tukan kuiwaksi ja karkeaksi. Jos kylwetään suolawedessä, ei tukka saa kastua, sillä suolawesi waalentaa hiuksia.

Kun tukka on pesty, on päänahka hierottawa ruokaöljyllä tai kokospähkinäöljyllä. Myöskin woidaan käyttää seosta, jossa on yhtä paljon lanoliinia, glyseriiniä ja ruusuwettä.

Kaiwowesi, runsas hikoilu ja piippaussakset owat tukan wihollisia, joita on wältettäwä.

Sanotaan, että tukka harmaantuu pikemmin talwella kuin kesällä, ja senwuoksi on sille omistettawa edellisenä wuodenaikana suurempaa huolta ja koska tumma tukka harmaantuu pikemmin kuin waalea, on tummatukkaisten enemmän huolehdittawa hiustensa hoidosta.

Neljänkymmenen ijässä alkaa tukka tawallisesti muuttaa wäriään, mutta wälistä myös aikaisemminkin, johtuen silloin esim. oleskelusta kuumassa ilmanalassa, reumatismista, hermostumisesta, yleisestä heikkoudesta, liikarasituksesta, huolista.

Ennen kaikkea on pidettäwä huolta yleisestä ruumiin terweydenhoidosta, ja jos hawaitaan, että tukka ja koko ruumis olkaa tuntea jotakin sairauden oireita, on heti käännyttävä lääkärin puoleen, joka ehkä woi aikaansaada parannuksen

Painting Engineering Work

Manufacturer and builder 9, 1875

After questions of form, strength, constructive material, and similar matters have been duly settled in conncetion with any engineering work made of wood or motel, the engineer has to consider the best method of maintaining that work in good condition. Apart from working casualties, the material of which the particular work is constructed is exposed to atmospheric and chemical influences which tend more or less to modify and corrode its surface, and an artificiel surface is therefore formed by applying paint. Most of the paints used for ordinary work are composed of the coloring matter, then of a quantity of white lead, with which and a particular oil they are worked into a paste of the shade required, and are afterward trimmed down with oil and turpentine when used. The white lead which thus forms the basis of most paints, and is by itself a color, is the basic carbonate of lead, a heavy earthy powder, white when first made, but soon becoming of a grayish tint when exposed to the air, from the action of sulphureted hydrogen. It is insoluble in water, and effervesces with hydrochloric acid, dissolving when heated, as chlorid of lead, which crystallizes in needles on cooling. Dilute nitric acid easily dissolves white lead, with effervescence caused by the escape of carbonic acid gas. When hosted on a knife or a piece of glass it becomes yellow. It is not very generally known that white lead and oil combine with such energy that if linseed oil is poured upon a very large quantity of white lead, and the mass allowed to stand for a few hours, the temperature becomes so high that the oil is carbonized and colors the whole a black. We should carefully avoid mixing with white lead substances that may impair its brightness or depreciate its other qualities, and it should be kept in closed vessels, otherwise it will acquire a brownish shade. For good paint it should be pure and without foreign mixture; however, both manufacturers and painters add to it variable proportions of chalk, sulphate of lead, and the like, and it is often mixed with that sulphate of baryta which is called baryta white, and which is prepared from the native sulphate or from carbonate of baryta artificially treated with sulphuric acid. Baryta white is an adulteration which ceases to be objectionable when the manufacturer makes the composition known, as it is of a handsome white color, entirely innocuous, fast, and resisting most reagents, its great defect being that it possesses but little body or covering power. The manufacturers sell various qualities of white lead, sometimes in powder or in lumps, as genuine dry white lead, but the greater portion in A paste, holding from 7 to 9 per cent of oil. White lead paint is solid and durable, but the disagreeable vapors given off by the lead exercise a dangerous effect upon the health of the workmen who are engaged either in its manufacture or its use. Many substitutes have been tried to obviate the employment of white lead. Zino white in particular has received considerable attention; it has not such a bad effect upon the health, having no smell of itself, and does not impart any to the liquids with which it may be mixed, so that any place freshly painted with it may be at once inhabited without fear of its injuring the occupants. Zinc white is the oxid of zinc; it is insoluble in water, but dissolves in hydrochloric acid, usually effervescing slightly from the escape of carbonic acid, which oxid of zinc absorbs from the air. When heated, oxid of zinc becomes yellow, but resumes its white color on cooling. It is as brilliant, white, and fine as white lead, and on drying becomes so hard that it will she a bright polish; it does not alter under the destructive action of sulphurous vapors, or of equivalent gases; it covers a larger surface than carbonate of lead, but it is very dry under the brush, and therefore requires more labor in applying it, which in a great extent explains the disinclination to use it, in spite of all the efforts made in its favor. It also takes longer lo drying, and when adulterated it very liable to change color.

Red lead, so largely used by engineers, is an oxid of lead, usually in the form of a bright red powder, which is not affected by water, but evolves the smell of chlorin when boiled with hydrochloric acid, and is slowly converted into chlorid of lead. Dilute nitric acid only partly dissolves it, leaving a brown powder. On account of its durability, it is frequently used as the priming coat, often the only coat given on iron-work. Care should be taken that no salt is present, otherwise a chemical action commences, blisters are formed, and the lead is reduced to the metallic condition. It has been proposed to substitute for red lead a red obtained from a sulphid of antimony, termed antimony vermilion, which is sold in a state of very fine powder, without taste or smell, and which is insoluble in water, alcohol, or essential oils. It is but little acted on by acids, and when ground in oil acquires great intensity or brightness of color, has a good body, is unalterable by air or light, and may be freely mixed with white lead. Black paints made from the residual products obtained in distilling coal and shale oils are largely employed for rough work. They combine readily with drying oils, and give an intense and handsome black, which is at the same time very economical. Oxid of iron paints are most effective and durable paints to use on iron, as they have no tendency to change or affect the surface of the metal. An analysis of one of these paints gave, peroxid of iron, 68.95; aluminous earth (clay,) 1.48; burnt clay, 29.57: total, 100.

Under equal volumes iron paints cover more than those from lead; mixed with one-third of white lead, it forms an excellent mastic, similar to that made from red 1ead, and which becomes very hard after drying for some time. As the iron oxid paint resists strong heat, it is advantageously employed for painting parts of machines and boilers. The so called anti-corrosive paint is made of equal parts by weight of whiting and white lead, with half the quantity of very fine sand or road dust, with colors at pleasure. The mixture being made with water can he used as a water-color, but it is usually applied as an oil paint. The preparation of oil recommended for this purpose 12 parts by weight of linseed oil raw, 1 part of boiled linseed oil, and 2 parts of sulphate of lime, the whole well mixed. One gallon of oil thus prepared is used to 7 pounds of the paint. Paints containing silica have been used for both wood and metal; they give a hard surface which is very durable; it is stated that when mixed with proper oils they will resist the action of salt water or acids better than Iron or lead paint, that they cover well, and that in the ease of wood they form a considerable protection against fire. In addition to the pigments which are in themselves colors, various tints are produced by additions of ochres, earths naturally colored by iron; chromes or yellows, consisting of oxid of lead and chromic acid; blues, such as Prussian blue, from animal refuse burnt with potash and iron; smalts, from oxid of cobalt; ultramarine blue, from carbonate of soda, silica, alum, and sulphur; or greens, from oxid, carbonate, and arsenates of copper.

Our Foreign Bureau

Harper's new monthly magazine 134, 1861

FROM a recent Report of the Council of Public Health for the Department of the Seine, for the ten years last past, we extract a few facts which may be of service to your metropolitan advisers — of double service if they serve to waken your public men to the importance of establishing a similar commission of scientific and hottest inquirers in all your large cities.

First of all, the Paris Board condemns the system of warming houses with furnace beat, particularly the large lodging-houses which are intended for the poorer clauses. It objects to the system that it does not supply ready means of ventilation, besides affording no means of economizing the heat according to the hours during which the apartments are occupied, or for rendering it serviceable for cooking purposes.

In regard to sewers, the Commission reports the entire feasibility of disinfecting all the impure waters discharged through them. It is further suggested that these disinfected waters be diverted from the river, according to a plan submitted by an eminent engineer, and the sediment reserved for agricultural purposes.

Certain cheap disinfectants recommended by the Board we copy:

"1. Dissolve sulphate of zinc in water, and add sufficient quantity of boiled rice-water; also a few drops of some aromatic essence: this produces a white liquid for the disinfection of liquids. Take on the other hand, a solution of sulphate of iron, and add a solution of tannin, some raw pyroligneous acid, a little charcoal, and a few drops of an aromatic essence; this will give a black liquid for the disinfection of solid matter. 2. Or else, dissolve 25 parts of sulphate of zinc, and two parts of sulphate of copper, in 973 parts of water. This, besides disinfecting fetid matter, may also be usefully applied in disinfecting places where many people are constantly crowded together, by aspersion with a watering-pot. 3. Lastly, a mixture of charcoal in grains and chloride of lime may be used, but this is more bulky sad costly."

In speaking of the comparative healthfulness of different trades, the Board signalizes the manufacture of white-lead as the most deleterious; and strongly urges the adoption of oxyd of zinc in place of white-lead. It instances a large housepainting establishment of Paris where the use of lead colors has been wholly abandoned, and their places supplied by the chromate of zinc, the sulphuret of antimony, and a combination of oxyd of cobalt and zinc, which has the name of riman green. These are innocent, and yield beautiful shades of color. The manufacture of lucifer matches is characterized as exceesively harmful.

The question of horse-flesh is considered, and the importance of it as an alimentary substance doubted. Good horseflesh may be palatable, but good bone-flesh is worth more for other purposes; whereas the grain or food which would go to build up broken-down hacks is much better bestowed upon sheep and bullocks. Twelve thousand horses are annually killed in the suburbs; but of these not one in a hundred are fit to furnish food.

The Board further condemns the custom of supplying poultry with animal food.

The report mentions an alimentary substance called Revalescière Dubarry, said to come from India, which it declares to be nothing else but a mixture of the flour of beans and lentils; while the Ervalenta or Revalenta Arabica is the flour of lentils alone. The sale of these pretended specifics has been forbidden by the Board, except under their real names. In the same manner Solenta is henceforth to be sold only as potato flour; and the famous Racahout des Arabes, and Palamout des Turcs, are to resume their original names of flour of acorns and flour of maize, with or without aroma or sugar. Tapioca also is henceforward to be sold according to its real origin, and labeled "Tapioca of exotic fecula," or "of indigenous fecula." Thus likewise the adulterations practiced on olive-oil have been unmasked by the Board. On the subject of wine, the Report condemns the use of what is called vin de teinte de Fiames, for giving winess dark color. It is a liquid extracted from elder-berries, with an addition of alum. Regarding milk, the Board declares that there are sufficient means for testing its purity, but that it would be prejudicial to the public to publish any instructions on the matter. It admits the addition of a little bicarbonate of soda to milk which is to be sent a great way, because it prevents its turning, and can not injure the health of the consumer. The use of potash, however, should be prohibited. A vast number of frauds on coffee, chocolate, and tea are further exposed, from which we learn that the finer and more high-sounding the name given to the compound, the more filthy and villainous it generally is, containing husks of cocoa, burned rye or beans, the refuse of beet-root sugar manufactories, etc. The only way, it appears, of being sure of the coffee one drinks is to buy it in the grain. Regarding sugar-plums, all kinds of fancy-paper colored with deleterious substances are forbidden. The coloring substances the use of which is permitted, are indigo, Prussian blue, ultramarine, cochineal, carmine, Brazil lake, saffron, French berries (grana Avenionensis), and their compounds for green and violet. The substances prohibited are — all oxyds of copper or lead, Sanders blue, sulphuret of copper or vermilion, chromate of lead, Schweinfurth green, Scheele's and metis green and white-lead.

The same Board of health from which we derive these suggestions remarks upon the feasibility of bringing salt-water to Paris from the neighborhood of Honfleur, for the establishment of sea-water baths. As a preliminary step, and to test the efficacy of such baths in a metropolitan district, the old school-frigate has been moored near to the Pont Royal, and is now being fitted for a bathing establishment, the sea-water being brought each day by rail from Havre.

Non-Poisonous Silicate Paint, a Remedy for Damp Walls

Manufacturer and builder 4, 1878

An English concern, the Silicate Feint Co., have for pears been engaged in rmenufacturing n coloring medium free from the diesel vintage of lead paints, but as easily worked, and produeing a better result. The base of this material is silica in the form of an impalpable powder, end obtained from a deposit in North Wale, England. The bed has a thickness of several feet and the product has been analyzed by several chemists, including prof. Flageolet, who considers it the result of a levigation. He gives the following analysis:
Silex ..... 79
Water ..... 13
Oxid of Iron ..... 8
Alumina ..... 4
Magnesium ..... 1

The material, after being excavated, is washed in water, which holds theftine material in suspension; this is then allowed to deposit and dry, when it is brilliently white. Before being used in the production of paint the water is driven out by heat, so that it becomes nearly pure silica, which freely mixes with the pigments and oils, and is worked with the greatest ease.

The silicate paint has many advantages over other kinds, as it is non-poisonous; it will not discolor under any circumstances, not even in the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen or sewer gas; it withstands 500 degrees of heat; its covering powers are claimed to be doable those of lead paints; while from its very nature it can have no chemical action upon metals. This silicate white paint can be stained to produce tints of the most delicate colors, exactly as white lead is stained; it is preferable not to use any preparation of lead, copper, or arsenic; the ordinary stains, ocher, umber, Venetian red, and black etc., may be used without in the slightest degree affecting its durability.


Petrifying liquid or solution of silica.

Another very important specialty of the Silicate Paint Co, is their petrifying liquid or solution of silica, for the curing of damp buildings and the preservation of stone, brick, plaster, cement, or new wood, and for protecting these from the efforts of atmospheric influence, and arresting decay. This preparation is claimed to be a most effective, thimble, and economical wallcovering as a washable distemper or waterpaint for the walls of corridors, staircawe, wards, etc., of hospitals, asylums, prisons, workhouses, and other public buildings, forming a marble-like washable surface, which is quite uineffected by disinfectants, thus presenting great facilities for the adoption of sanitary precautions. It is susceptible of the highest artistic treatment in all mural decorations, and moreover we are informed that this liquid has the property of hardening and renderleg impervious to water a11 kinds of brick, cement, stucco, and masonry. It can he supplied either transparent, white, brick, stone, or red, and any shade of color can be made to order for quantities of not less then five cwt. When we consider the nature of the mortar and cement of our very old buildings, we find that the cement is as hard as the stone or brickwork, and even harder; this is the work of time. The silica of the sand has combined in the course of years with the lime and formed a silicate of lime. The endeavors of the inventors of the new petrifying liquid has been to outstrip lime, and effect in a few days what has hitherto required centuries. This solution of silica petrifies the surface of stone, etc., thereby doing away with the effects of their porous nature, prevents the masonry from chipping with the frost, supplies a good subetratum for subsequent oil-painting, protects against the destructive influence of the atmosphere and the changes of temperature, and gives a beautiful appearance; but the principal and most notable feature is its petrifying quality, which causes it to stand out with prominence amongst all inventions of the kind.

The uses to which this fluid silica can be applied are extremely numerous, and it is this general application that makes it so invaluable; for instance, buildings on the seaside, if coated with this solution, it is claimed, stand the wind and the rain without any moisture being absorbed into the interior of the building, and a single coating to be as effective as to obviate the neceseity of painting every three years, as the paint lasts twice as long when laid on a sutrace previously prepared with the silicous fluid. The color retains its brilliancy for a great length of time, only requiring occasional washing. Again, the solution of silica, when used on newly-plastered walls, renders them at once fit for papering, protecting in every way the delicate coloring of the paper. If applied externally, the plaster will be found to become quite se durable and far better looking than cement. On cottage walls it can be applied instead of distemper coloring or white-wash, having besides the advantage of not rubbing off. The field can be applied by any ordinery workman, at all seasons and in all weathers {except frosty), for inside and outside work. It penetrates every pore of the brickwork, and is claimed to petrify and hermetically seal the outer surface, and thereby to shut out the action of the air and rain, and also to prevent all vegetable furring or the growth of moss and fungi. The silicate paints and the silicate solution work admirably together, and give a highly finished appearance as the silicous fluid so completely turns the wet. It is well suited for churches, seaside residences, hospitals, factories, warehouses, public buildings, monuments, tombstones, etc., and all structures liable to be externally effected by atmospheric influences. One cwt will cover from 120 to 150 square yards, three coats. If applied on brick or stone floor, it prevents the damp from rising.

The Silicate Enamel Paint, also manufactured by the Silicate Paint Co. is sent out ready for use, and is applied the some as ordistry paints. It is claimed to render damp buildings, waterproof; it is also good for enamelling walls, ironwork, baths, etc., for paintings ships, porous tile roofs, concrete blocks, walls of dwelling houses, etc., this paint forms a hard enemelled surface, and thoroughly prevents the oxidation or corrosion of metals, and hermetically closes the pores of brick, wood, tile, stone, content, concrete, and other porous materials. It is claimed to prevent the penetration of moisture, however copious, when applied to the walls or foundations of dwelling houses, railway arches, bridges, tunnels, viaducts, and other structures of brick, plaster, wood, etc. It is invaluable for porous tile roofs., alse for shingle roofs in hot climates. It dries with a hard, rich glossy, enamel-like surface, and is for more lasting than any paint. It is a splendid paint also for internal decorative purposes, such aa for walls of houses, offices, etc., and will wash like a piece of china. Mr. F. E. Thicke, the eminent architect, has drawn public attention in a lecture at the Society of Art, London, to the fact that one coat of enamel paint, succeeding a coat of silicate paint on a surface previously treated with one coat of petrifying liquid, gives asmirable result, with the merit of speedy execution — a point often of considerable importance. It is a paint that can be used over tar or felt. Cemented or brick cisterns can be painted with it to prevent leakage, to it will not taint the water in the least. Any other paint can be used over it, or it can be applied over ordinary paint. Hot or cold water has little or no effect upon the enamel; it will also withstand dilute acids. It will be found highly useful for protecting wood-work, such as beams in houses, wooden ships, railway sleepers, etc., and it is also admirably adepted for iron ships, also for the inside, in place of cement, thereby moving immensely in weight, ingreasing the buoyancy, and preventing the metal from oxidation. It is claimed to prevent the damp penetrating the gable ends and walls of homes, however exposed, by filling up the pores and forming a hard, glazed surface. The enamelling paint is also admirably adapted for the protection of iron ships engaged in the salt-carrying trade, recent experiments having demonstrated that the enamel is not affected by chlorid of sodium, (common salt). Iron treated with one coat of this paint was expoeed in the upon air for month, in contact with salt, and watered at frequent intervals. After a considerable time had elapsed, the iron wan removed and examined, when both the metal and the paint were found to be in the same condition as when first applied. Previous to the discovery, iron vessels, in order to be fit for a cargo of salt, had always to he cemented internally, at great cost, with loss of space and increase of dead weight.

We could continue to expatiate on the preparation, but we prefer to recommend our readers to apply to the sole Agent for the United States, at No. 10 Pine street, New York.

Comparison of the Covering. Powers of White Paints.

Scientific American 10, 4.9.1869

The following is a test now adopted by many dealers for testing the covering powers of white pigments "Fine, buff Manilla wrapping-paper, stretched on frames of wood, is painted with best coach black, and varnished until the surface presents a glassy smoothness. To cover and conceal this shining black surface, and present a white surface, is the object of the test; the utmost care being taken all through to note tho exact number of grains, by weight, of material used in each and every coat. No turpentine is used in the painting, the paints being thinned with linseed oil to a proper con-sistency for spreading evenly under the brush. The first coat is applied to the whole surface of the paper; the second to a fraction more than three fourths of the sheet, a portion being left in every case, whereby to compare the effects produced by the successive coats."

"It will be understood that a separate sheet is used for each brand. Size about two and one eighth square feet."

(Mainos) Degea titanvalkoinen

Maalarilehti 12, 1929

(Mainos) Färg & Ferniss Fabrik A. A.B.

Maalarilehti 12, 1929

(Mainos) Kolorator Glasso-autoruiskutusvärit

Maalarilehti 12, 1929

Valo ja värit.

Maalarilehti 12, 1929

Kuten tiedämme, heijastavat muutamat värit enemmän valoa ja toiset vähemmän. Koetamme tässä selvittää värien valovoimaa, sekä myöskin millä tavoin se voisi olla värinsekoittajan ohjattavissa määrättyihin asteisiin, joista selvästi voisimme määritellä värin miellyttävyyden ja erilaiset vaikutukset silmään.

Jokainen maalattu väri on muodostunut kahdesta osasta, väriaineesta ja sideaineesta. Värin laadun mukaan on toinen tahi toinen näistä voittavampana. Tukevassa liimavärissä on sideaine vähäisenä osana, mutta useissa lakkaväreissä se taas muodostaa pääaineen. Tällä seikalla on melkoisen tärkeä osuus värien valoisuuteen.

Värillä tarkoitamme myöskin kahta käsitettä, sitä vaikutusta jonka määrätty valon säteily silmäämme tekee, mutta myös ainetta jolla sivelemme pintoja. Edellisessä mielessä on kaikki väri silmäämme tulevaa heikompaa tahi vahvempaa valoa, yhdistyneenä toisaalta väripinnan muodostukseen ja eri tavalla valoa säteileviin aineisiin. Tässä lehdessä olemme aikaisemmin selostaneet amerikkalaisia tutkimuksia, jotka lähemmin ovat osoittaneet että väri sävy, punainen, sininen, keltainen, harmaankeltainen, tahi sinipunainen, voidaan määritellä toteamalla valon kulkunopeus, siis aaltopituus jolla se heijastuu määrätystä pinnasta. Siten voidaan asettamalla valo aaltoamaan tässä nopeudessa, aiheuttaa sama väri valaistulle pinnalle. Toisaalta on kuitenkin muistettava että useammat värit heijastavat vain osan valoa, toisen osan n.s. imiessään sisälle. Siten emme voi saada punaista pintaa heijastamaan kyllin vahvasti sinistä, vaikka ohjaisimmekin siihen sinisen valon, emmekä esim. mustaa pintaa säteilemään keltaista. Toisin on valkoisen laita joka soveltuu värin mittaamispinnaksi. Se säteilee ulospäin koko punaisen ja esim. sinisen. Sinisessä valossa se muuttuu täydellisesti siniseksi ja punaisessa valossa punaiseksi, viheriässä viheriäiseksi j.n.e. Ihmeellisintä valkoisen suhteen on, että jos siihen yhtaikaa ohjaamme viheriän ja punaisen valon, vastakkaisvärit, joiden tulisi synnyttää musta, se muuttuu valkoiseksi! Nämä seikat, varsinkin viimeinen, saattavat meille tehdä monenlaisia yllätyksiä ja sivuhäiriöitä sekoittaessamme heijastuvilla valoilla valaistuihin huoneisiin rakennusten käytäviin y.m. maalivärejämme, t.s. värejä, jotka eivät ole välitöntä auringonvaloa. Jopa voi olla niinkin, että pilvisäällä, tahi vaikka johonkin määrättyyn vuorokaudenaikaan sekoitettu väri saattaa kirkkaalla säällä tahi toiseen vuorokauden aikaan näyttääkokonaan erilaiselta. Jokainen maalari tietää kuinka värisokeita olemme lampun valossa. Lampun valo on keltaista ja häiritsee kaikki tietomme värien ominaisuuksista välittömässä auringon valossa. Monasti saattaa se tehdä turhaksi suuret vaivalloiset työmme. Otaksumme esim. että olemme maalanneet teatterin, jota aina aiotaan valaista keinotekoisella valolla. Mutta sattuu sitten kerta 10 vuodessa että sinne järjestetään keskipäiväksi joku isänmaallinen juhla. Sen kunniaksi poistetaan luukut akkunain edestä. Kun maalarikin sitten saapuu juhlaan, on hän revetä häpeästä, nähdessään kättensä työt, suuren juhlayleisön katseltavana. Siellä on kuoleman kelmeää harmaata, jota hän luuli hienoksi vihertäväksi, ja toisaalla siellä on sapenkarvaista ruskeaa, jota hän piti hienona silkinkeltaisena. Tavallisen sähkölampunkin ääressä me todella kaikki olemme enemmän tai vähemmän värisokeita.

Toisella asteella vivahdusten rikkaudessa ovat kuultavat, s.o. läpinäkyvät värit, joita maalarit usein käyttävät työssään ja joiden esikuvina voimme pitää värillisiä laseja. Sointuja joita saamme kuullotusväreillä syntymään, on usein mahdoton jäljentää peittoväreillä.

Useammat maalarin käyttämät värit ovat peittovärejä, joiden värisävy siis on yksinkertainen, suorassa päivän valossa. Mutta, kuten yllä on viitattu, heijasteleva päivän valo tekee kaikki värit kuullotusväreiksi.

Rajoittuaksemme peittäviin väreihin, nähtynä suorassa auringon valossa, teemme ensinnä sen huomautuksen, että sideainekin paljon määrää värin laatua. Öljyiset värit vaikuttavat raskaammilta ja lihavammilta, kuin vesivärit. Kuitenkin voi himmeä öljyväri kadottaa öljyn lihavuuden vaikutusta.

Lopuksi vielä huomautus eri värisävyjen valovahvuudesta silloinkuin näemme ne suorassa päivän valossa. Kokeiluissa ovat eräät tutkijat saaneet seuraavan taulukon:

Valkoinen .....57 % (valkoinen maalattu väri heijastaa siis takaisin vähän yli puolet suorasta valosta.)
vaalea karmosiini .....45 %
vaalea oranssi .....43 "
vaalea herneen viheriä .....22 "
vaalea ruskea .....15 "
tumma herneen viheriä .....13 "
kirkas sininen .....11 "
kirsikka punainen .....9 "

Sama kokeilija jonka numeroita yllä olemme käyttänee, osoittaa että eri valkoiset joita maalaaja tavallisesti käyttää ovat valovahvuudeltaan seuraavia:
Sinkkivalkoinen ..... 76 %
litoponi puhtaana .....75 "
Lietetty puhdas liitu .....66 "
Erilaiset vivahduksell. liidut vähint. .....40 "

Ylläolevissa taulukoissa on sinisen valovahvuus joutunut kovin alhaalle. Tutkija on kirjavien värien kokeiluunsa käyttänyt erivärisiä tapetteja, joissa värin sideaineen tahi kiillon on täytynyt vaikuttaa tuloksiin.

Tiedoksianto. (Piirustusten merkintätavat)

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

Rakennustaito-lehdestä lainaamme seuraavat piirustusten merkintätavat, jotka maalarillekin ovat tarpeelliset tietää.

Rakennuskonttorin anomuksen johdosta on Helsingin kaupungin Maistraatti äskettäin vahvistanut seuraavat merkitsemistavat piirustuksia laadittaessa rakennuksia varten Helsingin kaupungissa:

Kivi: tiili, uusi, merkitään intianpunaisella, vanha tiili merkitään mustailla.

Uusi tulisija, joka lämmitetään haloilla, hiilillä, koksilla, turpeella, öljyllä, merkitään vaalealla karmiinilla.

Uusi tulisija, joka lämmitetään kaasulla, kaasuhella, kaasukeittäjä y. m., merkitään vaalealla sinisenharmaalla.

Vanha tulisija merkitään vaalean harmaalla.

Luonnollinen kivi merkitään punaisen sinisellä.

Puu, uusi, merkitään poltetulla siennavärillä.

Puu, vanha, merkitään sepiavärillä.

Rauta, takorauta, teräs merkitään preussin sinisellä.

Betoni ja sementti merkitään intiankeltaisella.

Rautabetoni merkitään intiankeltaisella sinisine pilkkuineen.

Tulenkestävät väliseinät, paitsi tiiliseinät, merkitään olivivihreällä.

Rakenne, joka puretaan, viivoitetaan vaaleanvihreällä.

Julkisivumuutoksia merkitään uudet osat sinno- beripunaisella.

Raitisilmaventtiilit merkitään keltaisella nuolella.

Poistoventtiilit merkitään putkella ja punaisella nuolella.

(Mainos) Kyanize lakkoja.

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

(Mainos) Zoellner Werke A. G., Berlin. Tokiol.

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

(Mainos) Chinol emaljilakkaväri

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

(Mainos) Grillo Sinkkivalkoinen

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

(Mainos) Molyn & C:o

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

(Mainos) Kolori Vesivärimaali

Maalarilehti 5, 1926

The Universal Herbal: Justicia Tinctoria.

The Universal Herbal;
or botanical, medical and agricultural dictonary.
Containing an account of All the known Plants in the World, arranged according to the Linnean system. Specifying the uses to which they are or may be applied, whether as food, as medicine, or in the arts and manufactures.
With the best methods of propagation, and the most recent agricultural improvements.
collected from indisputable Authorities.
Adapted to the use of the farmer - the gardener - the husbandman - the botanist - the florist - and country housekeepers in general.
By Thomas Green.
Vol. I
Liverpool.
Printed at the Caxton Press by Henri Fisher.
Printer in Ordinary to His Majesty.
1824Herbaceous: leaves lanceolate, subcrenate, pubescent; flowers axillary, heaped; corollarose coloured. The leaves dye cloth of a fine green colour. — Native of Cochin-china.

The Universal Herbal: Juglans Regia; Common Walnut-tree.

The Universal Herbal;
or botanical, medical and agricultural dictonary.
Containing an account of All the known Plants in the World, arranged according to the Linnean system. Specifying the uses to which they are or may be applied, whether as food, as medicine, or in the arts and manufactures.
With the best methods of propagation, and the most recent agricultural improvements.
collected from indisputable Authorities.
Adapted to the use of the farmer - the gardener - the husbandman - the botanist - the florist - and country housekeepers in general.
By Thomas Green.
Vol. I
Liverpool.
Printed at the Caxton Press by Henri Fisher.
Printer in Ordinary to His Majesty.
1824Leaflets about nine, oval or oblong, smooth, subserrate, alost equal, the off one petioled; leaves pinnate, wit a very strong but not unpleasant smell; male flowers in close pendulous subterminating aments; females scattered, frequently two or three together; fuit an ovate coriaceous smooth drupe, inclosing an irregularly grooved nut, which contains a four-lobed oily eatable kernel, with an irregular knobbed surface, and covered with yellow skin. The varieties of common walnut are, the large walnut, the thin-shelled walnut, the double-bearing walnut, and the late-ripe walnut. They all vary again when raised from the seed, and nuts from the same tree will produce different fruit; persons therefore who plant the walnut for its fruit, should choose their trees in the nurseries, while they have their fruit upon them. The flowers begin to open about the middle of April, and are in full blow by the middle of May, before which time the leaves are fully displayed. Even in the south of France, this tree is frequently injured by spring forsts; and to avoid this, the Swiss engraft the common stocks with the late-ripe variety, which does not produce its fruit before the month of May or June. This [] probably be too late for us, but in those climates where, though they are warmer than ours, the olive will not succeed, and where the fruit of the walnut is therefore of much consequence for the oil which it yields, it may be worth attending to.

In France and Switzerland the wood is still in as great request for furniture, as it formerly was in England, under superseded by Mahogany. It is of singular use with the joiner, for the best grained and coloured wainscot; with the gunsmith, for stocks; with the coach-maker, for wheels and the bodies of coaches. The cabinet-maker uses it for inlayings, especially the firm and close timber about the root, which is admirable for flecked and cambleted works. To render tis wood the better coloured, joiners put the boards into an oven after the batch is drawn, or lay them in a warm stable; and, when they work it, polish it over with its own oil very hot, which makes it look black and sleek, and the older it is the more estimable; but then it should not be put in work till thoroughly seasoned, because it is very liable to shrink. It is most unfit for beams or joints, because of its brittleness. The enormous size to which this tree will grow, and the prodigious quantity of timber it will produce, may be judged from what Evelyn reports, that Scamozzi, the Italian architect, saw a table of walnut-tree, in Lorrain, twenty-five feet in breadth, all of one piece, and of competent length and thickness! The younger timber is held to make the better coloured work; but the older, being more firm and close, is finer cambleted for ornament. Those trees which are raised from the thick-shelled fruit become the best timber.

Besides the uses of the wood, the fruit when tender and very young is used for preserves. The oil is of extraordinary use with the painter, in whites and other delicate colours, also for gold-size and varnish, and for polishing walking-sticks and other works which are wrought in with burning. They fry with this oil in some places, in others they eat it instead of butter, which is so bad that they plant these trees all over the country of Berry in France, for that very purpose, as well as to supply their lamps with oil. The unripe fruit has been long eaten pickled, and is directed for medicinal use by the London College as an anthelminthic; and many authors recommend it for destroying worms. An extract is the most convenient preparation, as it may be kept for a sufficient length of time, and made agreeable to the stomach by mixing it with cinnamon-water. In this state the walnut is also said to be laxative, and of use in apthous affections and sore throats. The vinegar in which they have been pickled is a very useful gargle. The kernel is similar in qualities to the almond; the oil also does not congeal by cold, and answers the medicinal purposes of the oil of almonds. The bark, says Hill, taken either in substance, when dried and powdered, or made into a strong infusion and drank, vomits easily and plentifully, and the bitter skin with which the kernels are covered may be given in doses of three drachms, for allaying fluxes. The husks and leaves being macerated in warm water, and that liquor poured on grass-walks and bowling-greens, infallibly kills the worms, without endangering the grass. This, says Dr. Hunter, arises not from any thing peculiarly noxious in the decoction, but worms cannot bear the application of any thing bitter to their bodies; which is the reason that bitters, such as gentian, are the best destroyers of worms lodged in the bowels of animals. Worms are sel dom observed in the intestines of the human body, excepting in cases where the bile is either weak or deficient. The dye made of this lixive will colour woods, hair, and wool; and the green husks boiled, make a good colour to dye a deep yellow, without any mixture. Those nuts which come easily out of their husks, should be laid to mellow in heaps, and the rest exposed in the sun till the shells dry, else the kernels will be apt to perish: some again preserve them in their own leaves, or in a chest made of walnut wood; others in sand, especially for a seminary. Old nuts are not wholesome till macerated in warm water; but if you bury them in the earth in pots, out of the reach of the air, and so as no vermin can attack them, they will remain remarkably plump the whole year round, and may be easily blanched. In Spain, they strew the gratings of old and hard nuts, first peeled, into their tarts and other meats. For the oil, one bushel of nuts will yield fifteen pounds of peeled and clear kernels, and these half as much oil, which, the sooner it is drawn, will produce more plentifully, but not of so good a quality as when the nut is drier. The lees or marc of the pressing is excel lent to fatten hogs with. After the nuts are beaten down, the leaves should be swept into heaps, and carried away. Little use having been made of the wood during late years, the old trees that have been cut down have not been always replaced by young ones, and thus the plantations of this tree have gradually diminished. The wood is now principally used for making gun-stocks; and the fruit being eaten only ripe in deserts, or green in pickles, there is not so much call for it as there was formerly.

The English name Wall-nut is a corruption of Gaul-nut; which leads to conclude that it was imported from France into Great Britain. The French call the tree Noyer, and the fruit Noir; as the Romans call ed it exclusively Nuw, or The Nut; the Germans name it Wallnuss, or Welsche Nuss. Its native place of growth is uncertain, but Persia seems the most probable. It is much cultivated in some parts of Italy, France, Germany, and Switzerland. In several places between Hanau and Frankfort, in Germany, no young farmer is permitted to marry a wife, till he bring proof that he has planted a stated number of Walnut-trees. It was formerly much cultivated in England, particularly on the chalk hills of Surry.

— These trees are propagated by planting their nuts, which seldom produce the same sort of fruit as is sown, so that the only way to secure the desired sort, is to sow the nuts of the best kinds; and if this be done in a nursery, the trees should be transplanted out when they have had three or four years growth, to the place where they are designed to remain; for these trees do not bear transplanting when they are of a large size, therefore there may be a good number of the trees planted, which need not be put at more than six feet apart, as that will be far enough asunder for them to grow until they produce fruit; when those (the fruit of which is of the desired kind) may remain, and the others cut up to allow them room to grow: by this method a sufficient number of the trees may be generally found amongst them to remain, which will thrive and flourish greatly when they have room; but as many people do not care to wait so long for the fruit, so the best method is to make choice of some young trees in the nurseries, when they have their fruit upon them; but though these trees will grow and bear fruit, yet they will never be so large, or so long-lived, as those which are planted young. All the sorts of walnuts which are propa gated for timber, should be sown in the places where they are to remain; for the roots of these trees always incline downward. If the roots be stopped or broken, it will prevent their aspiring upward, so that they afterwards, divari cate into branches, and become low spreading trees; but such as are propagated for fruit, are greatly improved by transplanting, which causes them to produce larger fruit, and in greater abundance; and it is a common observation, that downright roots greatly encourage the luxuriant growth of timber in all sorts of trees; but such trees as have their roots spreading near the surface of the ground, are always the most fruitful and best flavoured. The nuts should be preserved in their outer covers in dry sand till February; when they should be planted in lines, at the distance you intend them to remain; but in the rows they may be placed pretty close, for fear the nuts should miscarry; and the young trees, where they are too thick, may be removed, after they have grown two or three years, leaving the remainder at the distance they are to stand. In transplanting these trees, observe never to prune either their roots or large branches, both which are very injurious to them; nor should you be too busy in lopping or pruning the branches, when grown to a large size, for that often causes them to decay; but when it is necessary to cut off any of the branches, it should be done early in September, (for at that time the trees are not so subject to bleed,) that the wound may heal over before the cold increases: the branches should always be cut off quite close to the trunk, otherwise the stump which is left, will decay, and rot the body of the tree. The best season for transplanting these trees, is as soon as the leaves begin to decay, when, if they be carefully taken up, and their branches preserved entire, there will be little danger of their succeeding, although they be eight or ten years old; but it must be remarked, that trees removed at that age, will neither grow so large, nor continue so long, as those that are removed when younger. This tree delights in a firm, rich, loamy soil, or such as is inclinable to chalk or marl; and will thrive very well in stony ground, and on chalky hills, as in the large plantations near Leatherhead, Godstone, and Carshalton, in Surry, where great numbers of those trees are planted upon the downs, and annually produce large quantities of fruit. The distance between these trees ought not to be less than forty feet, especially if regard be had to their fruit; though when they are only designed for timber, if they stand much nearer, it promotes their up right growth. The Black Virginia Walnut is much more inclined to grow upright than the common sort, and the wood being generally of a more beautiful grain, renders it preferable to that, and better worth cultivating. Some of the wood is so beautifully veined with black and white, that, when polished, it appears at a distance like polished marble. The cabinet-makers esteem it highly for inlaying, as well as for bedsteads, stools, chairs, tables, and cabinets, for all which purposes it is one of the most durable woods of English growth, and less liable to be infested with insects than most other kinds, which is probably owing to its extraordinary bitterness: but it is not proper for buildings of strength, being liable to break off very short. The general opinion is, that the beating off the fruit improves the trees, which is improbable, because in doing it the younger branches are generally broken and destroyed; but as it would be exceedingly troublesome to gather it by hand, so in beating it off great care should be taken that it be not done with violence, for the reason before assigned. In order to preserve the fruit, it should remain upon the trees till it is thoroughly ripe, when it should be beaten down, and laid in heaps for two or three days; after which it should be spread abroad, and in a little time the husks will easily part from the shells: they should then be well dried in the sun, and laid up in a dry place, secured from mice and other vermin; in this place they will remain good for four or five months. If put into an oven gently heated, and, after re maining four or five hours to dry, packed up in oil-jars or any other close vessel, mixing them with dry sand, they will keep good six months. The oven dries the germen, and prevents their sprouting, but when too hot will cause them to shrink. All the other sorts are propagated in the same way, but as few of them produce fruit in England, their nuts must be procured from North America. They should be gathered when fully ripe, and put up in dry sand, to preserve them in their passage to England. The sooner they are planted after their arrival, the greater chance there will be of their succeeding: when the plants come up, keep them clean from weeds. If they shoot late in the autumn, and their tops are full of sap, cover them with mats or other light covering, to prevent the early frosts from pinching their tender shoots, which often causes them to die down a considerable length before spring; but if they are screened from these early frosts, the shoots will become firmer, and better able to resist the cold. Some of the sorts being tender while young, require a little care for the two first winters, but afterwards will be hardy enough to resist the greatest cold of this country. The black Virginia Walnut, which is the most valuable, is as hardy as the common sort. They all require the same culture as the Common Walnut; but grow best in a soft loamy soil, not too dry, and where there is a depth of soil for their roots to run down. The Hickory when young is very tough and pliable, sticks of it are there fore much esteemed; but the wood when large, being very brittle, is not of any great use. In setting the nuts, Dr. Hunter recommends drills to be made at one foot asunder, and two inches and a half deep, into which put the nuts four inches apart. Evelyn advises some chopped furze to be mixed with them, to preserve them from vermin. The spring following, the plants will come up; and in two years they will be of a proper size to plant out in the nursery. There, having shortened their tap-roots, plant them in rows two feet and a half asunder, and at the distance of a foot and a half in the rows. Here they may remain till they are of a proper size for their final planting. If they are to be planted in fields, they should be risen out of the reach of cattle before they are removed from the nursery, which should be done with great caution; the knife should be very sparingly applied to the roots, and they should be planted as soon as possible after taking up, soon after the fall of the leaf. In raising the Walnut for fruit, Mr. Boutcher recommends flat stones, tile-sherds, or slates, to be buried eight inches deep under the nuts when they are set; the distance to be six inches, and the depth two inches. After two seasons, remove them early in autumn, and plant them fourteen or sixteen inches asunder, on the same kind of bottom, or any hard rubbish, to prevent them from striking downwards, and cause them to spread their roots on the surface. At the end of two or three years repeat this again, making the bed ding at the depth of fifteen or sixteen inches, and planting them two feet asunder: here let them remain for three or four years, when they will be fit to remove for the last time. The soil for fruit should be dry and sound, with a sandy, gravelly, and chalky bottom. The trees managed in this way will have higher-flavoured fruit, that ripens earlier, and they will bear a plentiful crop, twenty years sooner than in the usual method. The best manure for them is ashes, spread at the beginning of the winter after the lands have been first ploughed or dug. As plants raised from nuts of the same tree will bear fruit of very different qualities, Mr. Boutcher advises the inarching of one of the best sorts on the common Walnut-tree; by which method the planter is both sure of his sort, and will have fruit in one third of the time in which he could obtain it from the nut. This however is only practicable in a few situations; and a walnut-tree is generally about twenty years in bearing fruit from the nut. If these trees be intended to form a wood, for which purpose they answer extremely well, Dr. Hunter advises to take them out of the nursery when they are three or four feet high, to replant them three yards asunder, and thin them when their heads begin to interfere; this method will draw up these large and branching trees with beautiful stems to a great height. For raising timber, Mr. Boutcher's plan is to set the nuts in February, in drills five feet asunder, eighteen inches distant in the rows, and two or three inches deep, taking up every other plant after two years. They may then stand thus four or five years longer, the ground between being cropped with turnips, cabbages, or other kitchen-gar. den plants. From time to time, the least promising may be cut off below ground, when they are near touching each other, till they are left at the distance of thirty feet.