Farmaceutiskt notisblad 1916
af J. J. Holmström
(Fortsättning från N:o 21 årg. 1912.)
Oxymethylantrachinonerna.
Deras förekomst är ej enbart inskränkt till rabarber, de äro äfven påvisade i en del andra växtdroger med afförande värkan, såsom Cassia angustifolia, Cassia bijuga (blad och bark) Rhamnus cathartica Rh-frangula, Rh-purshiana (bark), i en del aloe arter (saft) (undantag Natalaloe) samt i flere Rumex arter till ex. Rumex nepalensis, R-palustris, R-obtusifolius, i Rad. Lapathi acuti och Rad. Lapathi hortensis m. fl. Kända äro Krysofansyran, Emodin, Iso-Emodin = Rabarberon, Rhein, Krysofansyrans glykosid, Krysofanein, samt ett par andra ämnen, som vi längre fram komma i beröring med i sammanband med krysofansyran. De visa färgämnens karaktär och gifva vid destillation med zinkstoft methylantracen. Till vissa reagenser förhålla de sig i allmänhet på följande sätt. De färgas af järnklorid i alkoholisk lösning dunkelt brunröda, med kalk, baryt och strontianvatten gifva de körsbärsröda fällningar, af förtunnade alkalier lösas de med röd till körbärsröd färg; däremot fällas de af koncentrerad kali och natronlut som körsbärs- till purpurröda flockar. I kolsyrade alkalier lösa de sig med körsbärsröd färg (krysofansyran blott i värme), af ammoniak lösas de med körsbärsröd färg; får lösningen stå i fullt dagsljus, förändras färgen till violett och blifver slutligen blå (Bornträgers reaktion för antrachinonerna). Rapontikroten är rik på krysofansyra; emodin har påvisats i några fall (som spår), rhein saknas helt och hållet. I kinesisk drog har alla tre ämnena påvisats. Uppgifter öfver i Europa kultiverad drogs innehåll af oxymethylantrachinoner varierar:
i Fransk rabarber från 1,54-3,84 %
i Österrikisk " " 2,70-4,54 %
i Engelsk " " 2,2 - %
Krysofansyra
C15 H10 O4
är en allrig felande beståndsdel i rabarber och af alla de i rabarber förekommande ämnena har väl denna egnats den första och största uppmärksamheten, också har den under tidernas lopp af respektiva autorer tilldelats olika namn, beroende af hvarifrån den blifvit framställd. Henry benämnde den Rhehumin, Brandes och Geiger Rhabariberin, Rhein, Rabarbergult och Rheinsyra. Den i andra droger funna krysofansyran är beskrifven dels som sådan, dels under andra benämningar. Buchner och Herberger framställde ur Radix Lapathi acuti en substans, som de benämnde Lapathin, ur Rad. Lapathi hortensis erhöll Geiger Rumicin; von Than fann dessa båda identiska med krysofansyra. Hesse erhöll ur Rumex nepalensis, R. palustris och R. obtusifolius äfven krysofansyra. Lassaigne och Fenculle fann i sennabladen ett gult ämne, som de beskrefvo som sennagult, men af Keussler sedermera konstaterades vara krysofansyra. Warren de la Rue och Hugo Müller bevisade år 1857 att den dittills som krysofansyra benämnda kroppen var ingen enhetlig substans och ingen syra, samt benämnde den krysofan. Enligt nyare forskningar har med säkerhet påvisats att krysofansyran ej innehåller någon karboxylgrupp, men väl två hydroxylgrupper. Tschirch har föreslagit benämningen Krysofanol. Kubly fann, att krysofansyran i rabarber till största delen förekommer bunden som glykosid, hvilken han benämnde Krysofan. Christofoletti fann i rapontikroten ungefär 3/4 delar fri och resten bunden som glykosid, men vid undersökningen af Rheum Emodi Web, fann jag största delen fri och endast en obetydlig del bunden krysofansyra jämte fritt socker i alkoholutdraget.
*) Samma färgämne fann Thompson i Sqvamaria elegans 1846.År 1843 framställde Rochleder och Held ur den gula vägglaven Parmelia parietina ett färgämne*, som de på grund af sin guld liknande färg benämnde krysofansyra. 1895 fastställde Hesse att det i Parmelia parietina förekommande gula färgämnet ej var identiskt med krysofansyran ur rabarber, och benämnde det Physcion.
Attfield uppgaf år 1875 att i Goa pulver finnes 80—84 % krysofansyra. Liebermann och Seidler, äfvenså Hesse, hafva dock senare konstaterat att ämnet var krysarobin som först efter oxidering och spjelkning gaf krysofansyra. I senare undersökningar uppgifves Goapulvret innehålla krysarobin dikrysarobin samt dikrysarobinmethyleter.
Jämför man de smältpunkter, som respektive forskare erhållit för krysofansyran, finner man som Oesterle påpekar i Wochenschrift fur Chemie und Pharmacie 1905 N:o 37 talvärden i snart hvarje höjdläge med 154° och 192 som yttersta gränser. Redan Liebermann och Geisel uttalade den förmodan, att möjligen icke alla rabarbersorterna innehåller samma krysofansyra. Hesse ansåg att den varierande smältpunkten berodde på en krysofansyran ledsagande methylether och äfvan Tschirch hänvisar derpå att de olika krysofansyrorna kunde tänkas vara isomera föreningar. Genom ihållande omkristalliseringar kunde Hesse höja smältpunkten och äfven Tschirch samt hans elever ha genom talrika experiment fastställt att krysofansyrans smältpunkt stod i omvändt, förhållande till halten af methoxyl; det är, ju högre smältpunkt desto mindre är halten af methoxylblandad krysofansyra.
[Taulukko puuttuu]
Genom upprepade omkristalliseringar af krysofansyra sp. 175° ur 10 % sodalösning och sedan ur isättika och slutligen ur 20 % pyridinlösning kunde jag höja smältpunkten till 194°. Underkastad Zeisels prof i två timmar erhölls icke OCH3
(Forts.)
30.11.16
29.11.16
Of the Cultivation and Importation of Indigo.
American Farmer, 13.3.1829. 409
(From the New York Evening City Gazette.)
Report of a Special Committee of the American Institute, on the Cultivation and Importation of indigo.
The Committee appointed to make inquiries on the cultivation and importation of Indigo, respect fully report:
That they have directed their attention to the investigation of the following points, viz.
An inquiry into the rise, progress, and decline of the cultivation of the Indigo plant in the United States.
The value of the article to the southern planter, with a view to profit, compared with cotton.
The effects of high duties on imported Indigo, with reference to the encouragement of its growth in the United States.
And a collection of facts on the subject, showing the importance of the article to our manufactures and commerce.
"Of the Indigofera," (or Indigo plant,) says an English writer, "there are thirty-five species, the most remarkable of which is the tinctoria, now a native of the warm parts of Asia, Africa and America, but originally of Asia only, whence the Dutch alone imported it, till about the commencement of the 17th century, when their exorbitant extortions occasioned its being transplanted to other hot climates."
The following facts are collected from Pitkin's Statistics.
"Indigo was one of the principal articles of produce and export from South Carolina and Georgia, before the planting of cotton in those states be came an object of so much importance. The culture of it was introduced into South Carolina about the year 1741 or 1742, and that state is Indebted to a lady for the introduction of this valuable plant. An account of the manner of its introduction is given by Dr. Ramsay, in his History of South Carolina.
"The second great staple of Carolina," (says the Doctor,) "was Indigo. Its origipal native country was Hindostan; but it had been naturalized in the West India islands, from which it was introduced into Carolina by Miss Eliza Lucas, the mother of Major General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
"Her father, George Lucas, governor of Antigua, observing her fondness for the vegetable world, sent her, among other tropical seeds, some indigo seed as a subject of experiment.
After several discouraging efforts, she at length succeeded in the cultivation of the plan. Soon afterwards "she married Charles Pinckey, and her father made a present of all the indigron his plantation, the fruit of her industry, to hr husband. - The whole was saved for seed. Part was planted by the proprietor, next year, at Asapoo, and the remainder given away to his friends for the same purpose. They all succeeded. From that time the culture of indigo was comma, and in a year or two it became an article of exert.
In the year 1748, (21 of Gcore II.) a bounty of six pence on the pound on Plantaton indigo, when it was worth three-fourths of the price ol the best Freneh indigo, was granted by the British parliament. This increased its culture in South Carolina, and in 1754, 216,924 lbs. [-] indigo were exported from that province. From November, 1760, to September, 1761, 399,366 lbs were exported, and in 1770, 535,672 lbs. value at l. 131,552 sterling, or about one dollar [-] pound. In 1794, 1 553 8S0 lbs. were expoted from the United Staates, being the greatest quantity exported in any one year. Probably a considerable part of this was foreign indigo.
Since the planting of cotton has become general in South Carolina and Georgia, the culture of Indigo has been in a great measure neglected.
From the above statement of the rise and pro gress of the cultivation of indigo in the United States, its former importance as a staple of the country and an article of export, is fully shown. - The culture of the plant has now dwindled into insignificance, and it appears probable to your Committee, from the best information we can obtain, that not over 10,000 lbs. are now annually raised in South Carolina, and a small quantity in other Southern slates, all of which is of a very inferior quality.
The more advantageous cultivation of colton as an article of profit to the planter, has doubtless been the leading cause of the neglect and consequent decline of indigo, both in the quality and quantity produced. It is also well known to the southern planters, that the process of preparing the indigo for market from the plant, is deleterious to the health of the slaves and other persons employed. Your Committee, however, learn that the con tinued low price of cotton, and the obvious necessity of a division of labour in agriculture, have induced enterprising individuals in the Southern states to turn their attention to the subject of a re vival of the culture of indigo. And here the in quiry arises, what has been done by our govern ment to encourage the raising of this article in the United States, and what is the true national policy to be pursued, so as to protect the planter, without injury to the manufacturer?
Your Committee find, that in 1789, a duty was imposed on foreign indigo imported, of 18 cents per lb., which was raised to 25 cents per lb. in 1790. It was afterwards fixed at 15 cents per lb.; and by the present tariff the same rate was continued for the year 1828, to be raised to 20 cents after June, 1829 - in 1830, to 30 cents - 1831, 40 cents - 1832, 50 cents per lb. It does not appear that those several changes in our tariff, as to indigo, have produced any effect, either on the culture or importation. An article of such necessity to our manufacturers must be obtained, at whatever price, and from the causes already mentioned, they have for years depended on a supply from foreign countries. It is evident, therefore, that the principle applicable to this article, it being indispensable to our manufacturers, and its production in this country at tended with difficulties of a peculiar nature, differs from that we contend for as essential to a due encouragement of manufactures: inasmuch as it has been ascertained that the latter can be convenient ly produced in this country, and needs only the pro tection of government to be afforded cheaper than the imported rival article.
Your Committee are of opinion that if it should be considered of advantage to the southern planter to encourage the extensive cultivation of indigo, it can more easily be effected by a bounty from government to the agriculturist, than by raising the duty on the imported article, which would operate to the injury of the manufacturer. This opinion is sustained by the following remarks of Alexander Hamilton, in bis report on manufactures, in 1790.
"Bounties are sometimes not only the best, but the only proper expedient, fur uniting the encouragement of a new object of agriculture with that of a newobject of manufacture. It is the interest of the farmer to have the production of the new material promoted, by counteracting the interference of the foreign material of the same kind. It is the interest of the manufacturer, in have the material abundant or cheap. If prior to the domestic production of the material, in sufficient quantity to supply the manufacturer on good terms, a duty be laid upon the importation of it from abroad, with a view to promote the raising of it at home, the interest both of (be manufacturer and the farmer will be disserved. By either destroying the requisite supply, or raising the price of the article, beyond what can be afforded to be given for it, by the conductor of an infant manufacture, it is abandoned or fails; and there being no domestic manufactories to create a demand for the raw material, which is raised by the farmer, it is in vain that the competition of the like foreign articles may have been destroyed.
"The true way to conciliate these two interests, is to lay a duty on foreign manufactures of the material, the growth of which is desired to be encouraged, and to apply the produce of that duty by way of bounty, either upon the production of the material itself, or upon its manufacture at home, or upon both. In this disposition of the thing, the manufacturer commences his enterprise, under every advantage which is attainable as to quantity or price of the raw material: and the farmer, if the bounty be immediately given to him, is enabled by it to enter into a successful competition with the foreign material.
"There is no purpose to which public money can be more beneficially applied than to the acquisition of a new and useful branch of industry; no consideration more valuable than a permanent addition to the general stock of productive labour."
In conclusion of this part of the subject, your Committee would allude to the example of the British government. It has been seen that when the Southern states were British colonies, that government encouraged the growth of indigo by a bounty of six pence sterling per pound. Every ar ticle of foreign growth used in their manufactures, it has always been the policy of the nation to ad mit at a low rate of duty. Accordingly, we find by the British tariff of 1819, indigo pays a duty of five pence sterling only, or about nine cents per pound.
The tables of exports and imports of indigo for several years, annexed to this report, will exhibit the importance of this article to our commercial in terests. Indeed, it has been shown that the impor tation of this article, with other dye stuffs, and the oil required by our woollen manufactories, employ more tons of our shipping in foreign commerce, than the whole amount of tonnage required in the importation of foreign woollens into the United States.
With regard to the quantity of Indigo consumed in this country, your Committee have not been able to arrive at any definite conclusion. Taking the amount of exports from the imports in the year 1827, the amount left for home consumption will be found to exceed 800,000 pounds, part of which may have been afterwards exported. And as the amount of domestic indigo produced cannot probably be estimated at over 50,000 pounds, we consider it fair to state the present annual consumption of indigo in the United States at about 800,000 lbs.; which consumption, of course, is increasing with the growth of our woollen and cotton manufactures.
The tables herewith show that the principal importations of indigo into this country, have been from the British East Indies. The quantity, however, received from Mexico and other southern parts of America, is gradually increasing; a subject of congratulation, when it is considered that the Southern republics of this continent afford an extensive market for our produce and manufactures.
Your Committee also subjoin a statement of facts, connected with this report, submitted to them in the form of answers to queries addressed by them to a member of this Institute, who is now, and has been for many years, a considerable dealer in Indigo, and of course practically acquainted with tba subject.
(From the New York Evening City Gazette.)
Report of a Special Committee of the American Institute, on the Cultivation and Importation of indigo.
The Committee appointed to make inquiries on the cultivation and importation of Indigo, respect fully report:
That they have directed their attention to the investigation of the following points, viz.
An inquiry into the rise, progress, and decline of the cultivation of the Indigo plant in the United States.
The value of the article to the southern planter, with a view to profit, compared with cotton.
The effects of high duties on imported Indigo, with reference to the encouragement of its growth in the United States.
And a collection of facts on the subject, showing the importance of the article to our manufactures and commerce.
"Of the Indigofera," (or Indigo plant,) says an English writer, "there are thirty-five species, the most remarkable of which is the tinctoria, now a native of the warm parts of Asia, Africa and America, but originally of Asia only, whence the Dutch alone imported it, till about the commencement of the 17th century, when their exorbitant extortions occasioned its being transplanted to other hot climates."
The following facts are collected from Pitkin's Statistics.
"Indigo was one of the principal articles of produce and export from South Carolina and Georgia, before the planting of cotton in those states be came an object of so much importance. The culture of it was introduced into South Carolina about the year 1741 or 1742, and that state is Indebted to a lady for the introduction of this valuable plant. An account of the manner of its introduction is given by Dr. Ramsay, in his History of South Carolina.
"The second great staple of Carolina," (says the Doctor,) "was Indigo. Its origipal native country was Hindostan; but it had been naturalized in the West India islands, from which it was introduced into Carolina by Miss Eliza Lucas, the mother of Major General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
"Her father, George Lucas, governor of Antigua, observing her fondness for the vegetable world, sent her, among other tropical seeds, some indigo seed as a subject of experiment.
After several discouraging efforts, she at length succeeded in the cultivation of the plan. Soon afterwards "she married Charles Pinckey, and her father made a present of all the indigron his plantation, the fruit of her industry, to hr husband. - The whole was saved for seed. Part was planted by the proprietor, next year, at Asapoo, and the remainder given away to his friends for the same purpose. They all succeeded. From that time the culture of indigo was comma, and in a year or two it became an article of exert.
In the year 1748, (21 of Gcore II.) a bounty of six pence on the pound on Plantaton indigo, when it was worth three-fourths of the price ol the best Freneh indigo, was granted by the British parliament. This increased its culture in South Carolina, and in 1754, 216,924 lbs. [-] indigo were exported from that province. From November, 1760, to September, 1761, 399,366 lbs were exported, and in 1770, 535,672 lbs. value at l. 131,552 sterling, or about one dollar [-] pound. In 1794, 1 553 8S0 lbs. were expoted from the United Staates, being the greatest quantity exported in any one year. Probably a considerable part of this was foreign indigo.
Since the planting of cotton has become general in South Carolina and Georgia, the culture of Indigo has been in a great measure neglected.
From the above statement of the rise and pro gress of the cultivation of indigo in the United States, its former importance as a staple of the country and an article of export, is fully shown. - The culture of the plant has now dwindled into insignificance, and it appears probable to your Committee, from the best information we can obtain, that not over 10,000 lbs. are now annually raised in South Carolina, and a small quantity in other Southern slates, all of which is of a very inferior quality.
The more advantageous cultivation of colton as an article of profit to the planter, has doubtless been the leading cause of the neglect and consequent decline of indigo, both in the quality and quantity produced. It is also well known to the southern planters, that the process of preparing the indigo for market from the plant, is deleterious to the health of the slaves and other persons employed. Your Committee, however, learn that the con tinued low price of cotton, and the obvious necessity of a division of labour in agriculture, have induced enterprising individuals in the Southern states to turn their attention to the subject of a re vival of the culture of indigo. And here the in quiry arises, what has been done by our govern ment to encourage the raising of this article in the United States, and what is the true national policy to be pursued, so as to protect the planter, without injury to the manufacturer?
Your Committee find, that in 1789, a duty was imposed on foreign indigo imported, of 18 cents per lb., which was raised to 25 cents per lb. in 1790. It was afterwards fixed at 15 cents per lb.; and by the present tariff the same rate was continued for the year 1828, to be raised to 20 cents after June, 1829 - in 1830, to 30 cents - 1831, 40 cents - 1832, 50 cents per lb. It does not appear that those several changes in our tariff, as to indigo, have produced any effect, either on the culture or importation. An article of such necessity to our manufacturers must be obtained, at whatever price, and from the causes already mentioned, they have for years depended on a supply from foreign countries. It is evident, therefore, that the principle applicable to this article, it being indispensable to our manufacturers, and its production in this country at tended with difficulties of a peculiar nature, differs from that we contend for as essential to a due encouragement of manufactures: inasmuch as it has been ascertained that the latter can be convenient ly produced in this country, and needs only the pro tection of government to be afforded cheaper than the imported rival article.
Your Committee are of opinion that if it should be considered of advantage to the southern planter to encourage the extensive cultivation of indigo, it can more easily be effected by a bounty from government to the agriculturist, than by raising the duty on the imported article, which would operate to the injury of the manufacturer. This opinion is sustained by the following remarks of Alexander Hamilton, in bis report on manufactures, in 1790.
"Bounties are sometimes not only the best, but the only proper expedient, fur uniting the encouragement of a new object of agriculture with that of a newobject of manufacture. It is the interest of the farmer to have the production of the new material promoted, by counteracting the interference of the foreign material of the same kind. It is the interest of the manufacturer, in have the material abundant or cheap. If prior to the domestic production of the material, in sufficient quantity to supply the manufacturer on good terms, a duty be laid upon the importation of it from abroad, with a view to promote the raising of it at home, the interest both of (be manufacturer and the farmer will be disserved. By either destroying the requisite supply, or raising the price of the article, beyond what can be afforded to be given for it, by the conductor of an infant manufacture, it is abandoned or fails; and there being no domestic manufactories to create a demand for the raw material, which is raised by the farmer, it is in vain that the competition of the like foreign articles may have been destroyed.
"The true way to conciliate these two interests, is to lay a duty on foreign manufactures of the material, the growth of which is desired to be encouraged, and to apply the produce of that duty by way of bounty, either upon the production of the material itself, or upon its manufacture at home, or upon both. In this disposition of the thing, the manufacturer commences his enterprise, under every advantage which is attainable as to quantity or price of the raw material: and the farmer, if the bounty be immediately given to him, is enabled by it to enter into a successful competition with the foreign material.
"There is no purpose to which public money can be more beneficially applied than to the acquisition of a new and useful branch of industry; no consideration more valuable than a permanent addition to the general stock of productive labour."
In conclusion of this part of the subject, your Committee would allude to the example of the British government. It has been seen that when the Southern states were British colonies, that government encouraged the growth of indigo by a bounty of six pence sterling per pound. Every ar ticle of foreign growth used in their manufactures, it has always been the policy of the nation to ad mit at a low rate of duty. Accordingly, we find by the British tariff of 1819, indigo pays a duty of five pence sterling only, or about nine cents per pound.
The tables of exports and imports of indigo for several years, annexed to this report, will exhibit the importance of this article to our commercial in terests. Indeed, it has been shown that the impor tation of this article, with other dye stuffs, and the oil required by our woollen manufactories, employ more tons of our shipping in foreign commerce, than the whole amount of tonnage required in the importation of foreign woollens into the United States.
With regard to the quantity of Indigo consumed in this country, your Committee have not been able to arrive at any definite conclusion. Taking the amount of exports from the imports in the year 1827, the amount left for home consumption will be found to exceed 800,000 pounds, part of which may have been afterwards exported. And as the amount of domestic indigo produced cannot probably be estimated at over 50,000 pounds, we consider it fair to state the present annual consumption of indigo in the United States at about 800,000 lbs.; which consumption, of course, is increasing with the growth of our woollen and cotton manufactures.
The tables herewith show that the principal importations of indigo into this country, have been from the British East Indies. The quantity, however, received from Mexico and other southern parts of America, is gradually increasing; a subject of congratulation, when it is considered that the Southern republics of this continent afford an extensive market for our produce and manufactures.
Your Committee also subjoin a statement of facts, connected with this report, submitted to them in the form of answers to queries addressed by them to a member of this Institute, who is now, and has been for many years, a considerable dealer in Indigo, and of course practically acquainted with tba subject.
28.11.16
Sugar and Indigo.
American Farmer, 12.12.1828. 307
(From the Southern Agriculturist.)
On the Culture of Sugar and Indigo - by T. Spald jng, Esq. of Georgia.
Sapello, (Geo.) Aug. 1828.
Herewith you will receive some memoranda, made by myself, upon a sugar plantation in Louisiana of fair repute, in the spring of 1825. It gave two hundred and eighty thousand weight of sugar from three hundred acres, laboured by from seventyone to seventy-three persons, mostly men, say fifty of them. The mill, a six horse power steam engine, high pressure, a double set of copper kettles, for fear of accident to a single set.
The crop was at least an average one. It gave four thousand weight of sugar to the hand; you may rest assured that this was more than an ave rage crop for Louisiana, in any of its districts; and would be about $250 to the band; but we must re mark that the capital invested in land, and the ma chinery, was estimated at about $60,000; five hun dred acres of sugar land, with a portion of morass which gave limber for plantation purposes and fuel.
Mr. Williams, whose estate is about twenty-five miles below New Orleans, on the river, and who is respected in that country as a distinguished planter, and highly informed gentleman, stated to me, that he considered six thousand weight of sugar might be made in a favourable season to the land. Mr. Williams' crop would be from four to five hundred thousand; but his lands were fresh, reclaimed by himself, and possibly would be valued at 80,000 or $100,000.
Colonel Proctor, formerly of South Carolina, has been perhaps the most successful planter in Louisi ana. His lands are quite fresh, situated between two lakes, thirty miles below New Orleans, which tempers the climate more than upon any other estate I saw in that country. He has made two thousand weight to the acre, which is as much again as the old lands produce annually. But Colonel Proctor plants short to the hand, and would not exceed Mr. Williams' estimate of six thousand weight, proba bly four hundred dollars; but this four hundred dol lars is purchased by great labour, by great expen diture upon land and upon machinery, and could not possibly be reached by any person upon a small scale, without much expeniiilure. Col. Proctor has a million of bricks in his sugar works, and a twelve horse steam engine for expressing his cane. I give you these details in order to put down the extrava gant reports which are circulated by transient visiters from the west, than which nothing can be more injurious to the real agriculturist. His expectations are excited to an extravagant degree, feverish in clinations are generated in his mind to flee to this land of promise. The reality is widely different. Of all that have gone, (and I know many of them,) two out of three have been totally ruined.
Sugar may be cultivated from Charleston to St. Mary's, with reasonable expectation of a moderate result The winter of Charleston is as mild, at least, as the winter of New Orleans. The alluvions of our tide rivers can be drained as deep as the alluvions of the Mississippi, which are an inclined plain at the river, eight feet above the mo rass water, but ending about a mile back at nothing. Thus, generally, the mean height of their fields above the water, is four feel; this elevation our river lands have, but they have this elevation more conveniently distributed, because equal, instead of being eight feet at one end of the field, and on a level with the water at the other.
The ribbon cane, which is so much talked of, Louisiana owes to the late Mr. John McQueen, of Savannah. He brought it from Jamaica, and dis tributed it among his friends in Georgia; from whence it has been carried, within four years, to Louisiana. With steam mills to express the juice, it is certainly the best cane; but animal power is not sufficient for a radical expression of its juice, as I have proved to my great loss these ten years past.
I think you should procure from some of the elder planters, a carefully prepared paper on Indigo. My father cultivated indigo until I was sixteen; memory is far from furnishing me with any evi dence of its being an unhealthy culture; it gene rates flies, but not more than a livery stable or a manure pen. I have questioned, upon the subject of the quantity to be expected to the hand, our two last indigo planters, both gentlemen of intelligence, of character, and of truth. They say, a set of indigo works that cost $120, would work off thirty acres of indigo; would require to attend eight good hands, or ten ordinary ones; would give in a bad year, one hundred pounds of indigo; in a moderate year, one thousand five hundred; in a year of great crop, two thousand pounds. The house of David son & Simpson, of London, have twice written me that the copper indigo, which was formerly produced in Georgia, would command now in London, from 7s. To 7s. 6d. per pound. Take the negroes at the highest, say at ten; take the medium crop, one thousand five hundred: this gives one hundred and fifty pounds of indigo to the hand, which, at 7s. would be $225. What could be more profitable?
As to our enemies at the north, the woollens men, they would not buy our indigo for years; their prejudices are too deeply fortified, and I rejoice at it; for I trust in God, there does not live a man in either state, that would directly or indirectly wil lingly receive one cent from a tariff, whose only support before Congress, was in the simplicity of corruption, bargain and sale.
A Mr. Gray, who had, before the revolutionary war, been the manager of an indigo plantation for Mr. John Bowman, on Skidaway island, near Savannah, and who was discharged for his violent political opinions, was patronized by Gov. Wright, and sent to England, and from thence to Bengal, for the purpose of introducing the American mode of manufacturing indigo - that is, by large stecpers and beaters.
As far as I can see, the Bengal Indigo, manufactured in our American manner, owes its superiority to two circumstances: settling the water of the Ganges in large tanks before it is used for steeping, and from passing the mud, or colouring matter of the indigo, from the beaters, after it has subsided, into copper boilers, where it is allowed to simmer for twelve hours, or until all the watery particles are dispersed, before it is put into the press. This prevents vegetable fermentation, and gives solidity and firmness to the indigo, and perhaps a more uni form colour. But both these improvements might be adopted with great ease, and at trifling expense.
I remain, dear sir, with esteem, &c.
T. SPALDING.
(From the Southern Agriculturist.)
On the Culture of Sugar and Indigo - by T. Spald jng, Esq. of Georgia.
Sapello, (Geo.) Aug. 1828.
Herewith you will receive some memoranda, made by myself, upon a sugar plantation in Louisiana of fair repute, in the spring of 1825. It gave two hundred and eighty thousand weight of sugar from three hundred acres, laboured by from seventyone to seventy-three persons, mostly men, say fifty of them. The mill, a six horse power steam engine, high pressure, a double set of copper kettles, for fear of accident to a single set.
The crop was at least an average one. It gave four thousand weight of sugar to the hand; you may rest assured that this was more than an ave rage crop for Louisiana, in any of its districts; and would be about $250 to the band; but we must re mark that the capital invested in land, and the ma chinery, was estimated at about $60,000; five hun dred acres of sugar land, with a portion of morass which gave limber for plantation purposes and fuel.
Mr. Williams, whose estate is about twenty-five miles below New Orleans, on the river, and who is respected in that country as a distinguished planter, and highly informed gentleman, stated to me, that he considered six thousand weight of sugar might be made in a favourable season to the land. Mr. Williams' crop would be from four to five hundred thousand; but his lands were fresh, reclaimed by himself, and possibly would be valued at 80,000 or $100,000.
Colonel Proctor, formerly of South Carolina, has been perhaps the most successful planter in Louisi ana. His lands are quite fresh, situated between two lakes, thirty miles below New Orleans, which tempers the climate more than upon any other estate I saw in that country. He has made two thousand weight to the acre, which is as much again as the old lands produce annually. But Colonel Proctor plants short to the hand, and would not exceed Mr. Williams' estimate of six thousand weight, proba bly four hundred dollars; but this four hundred dol lars is purchased by great labour, by great expen diture upon land and upon machinery, and could not possibly be reached by any person upon a small scale, without much expeniiilure. Col. Proctor has a million of bricks in his sugar works, and a twelve horse steam engine for expressing his cane. I give you these details in order to put down the extrava gant reports which are circulated by transient visiters from the west, than which nothing can be more injurious to the real agriculturist. His expectations are excited to an extravagant degree, feverish in clinations are generated in his mind to flee to this land of promise. The reality is widely different. Of all that have gone, (and I know many of them,) two out of three have been totally ruined.
Sugar may be cultivated from Charleston to St. Mary's, with reasonable expectation of a moderate result The winter of Charleston is as mild, at least, as the winter of New Orleans. The alluvions of our tide rivers can be drained as deep as the alluvions of the Mississippi, which are an inclined plain at the river, eight feet above the mo rass water, but ending about a mile back at nothing. Thus, generally, the mean height of their fields above the water, is four feel; this elevation our river lands have, but they have this elevation more conveniently distributed, because equal, instead of being eight feet at one end of the field, and on a level with the water at the other.
The ribbon cane, which is so much talked of, Louisiana owes to the late Mr. John McQueen, of Savannah. He brought it from Jamaica, and dis tributed it among his friends in Georgia; from whence it has been carried, within four years, to Louisiana. With steam mills to express the juice, it is certainly the best cane; but animal power is not sufficient for a radical expression of its juice, as I have proved to my great loss these ten years past.
I think you should procure from some of the elder planters, a carefully prepared paper on Indigo. My father cultivated indigo until I was sixteen; memory is far from furnishing me with any evi dence of its being an unhealthy culture; it gene rates flies, but not more than a livery stable or a manure pen. I have questioned, upon the subject of the quantity to be expected to the hand, our two last indigo planters, both gentlemen of intelligence, of character, and of truth. They say, a set of indigo works that cost $120, would work off thirty acres of indigo; would require to attend eight good hands, or ten ordinary ones; would give in a bad year, one hundred pounds of indigo; in a moderate year, one thousand five hundred; in a year of great crop, two thousand pounds. The house of David son & Simpson, of London, have twice written me that the copper indigo, which was formerly produced in Georgia, would command now in London, from 7s. To 7s. 6d. per pound. Take the negroes at the highest, say at ten; take the medium crop, one thousand five hundred: this gives one hundred and fifty pounds of indigo to the hand, which, at 7s. would be $225. What could be more profitable?
As to our enemies at the north, the woollens men, they would not buy our indigo for years; their prejudices are too deeply fortified, and I rejoice at it; for I trust in God, there does not live a man in either state, that would directly or indirectly wil lingly receive one cent from a tariff, whose only support before Congress, was in the simplicity of corruption, bargain and sale.
A Mr. Gray, who had, before the revolutionary war, been the manager of an indigo plantation for Mr. John Bowman, on Skidaway island, near Savannah, and who was discharged for his violent political opinions, was patronized by Gov. Wright, and sent to England, and from thence to Bengal, for the purpose of introducing the American mode of manufacturing indigo - that is, by large stecpers and beaters.
As far as I can see, the Bengal Indigo, manufactured in our American manner, owes its superiority to two circumstances: settling the water of the Ganges in large tanks before it is used for steeping, and from passing the mud, or colouring matter of the indigo, from the beaters, after it has subsided, into copper boilers, where it is allowed to simmer for twelve hours, or until all the watery particles are dispersed, before it is put into the press. This prevents vegetable fermentation, and gives solidity and firmness to the indigo, and perhaps a more uni form colour. But both these improvements might be adopted with great ease, and at trifling expense.
I remain, dear sir, with esteem, &c.
T. SPALDING.
27.11.16
On the Manufacture of Indigo.
American Farmer, 5.12.1828.
(From the Southern Agriculturist.)
On the Culture, Gathering and Dyeing of the Indigo Plant, and the Manufacture of Indigo - by the Marquis de Fougere.
[Translated from the French.]
The gentlemen in South Carolina being perfectly well acquainted with the culture of indigo and the choice of seeds and soil, it is deemed unnecessary to translate that part of the author's instructions which relate to these objects.
Gathering of Leaves.
The proper time for cutting the plants, may be known by various signs which are more or less certain; it will always be known when the plants have arrived at perfect maturity and contain the greatest quantity and best quality of fecula which they can produce, when the greater part are in full blossom, and the seeds begin to appear.
The branches of the plant must be cut at about one inch from the stalk, with pruning knives or any other sharp instrument. When, after some time, the principal branches will have become stouter, it will be well to leave them and only to cut the secondary ones, in the way above mentioned.
This relates only to the indigo plant of Senegal; if the Bengal plant be cultivated, it will be necessary to cut (with sickles,) the whole plant at four or five inches from the earth, leaving on the stalk the inferior part of the first branches. The leaves must never be torn from the branches; for they would no longer be susceptible of being properly dried for the manufacture of indigo.
The cutting should never begin, but five or six days after a rain and in a day of warm weather, so that the leaves may, in one day, acquire such a de gree of dryness as will permit them to be kept in a heap without fermenting until the next day.
As the leaves which have been cut at sunset, can pass the night without alteration, they may be gathered from five o'clock until night, and the work may be resumed in the morning, and continued until half past eight o'clock only. It will be easily perceived, that in cases of emergency, the work may last all night. In all cases the plants must be transported in bundles to the dryers, and there immediately opened. They should be compressed to gether during as little time as possible; one hour being often sufficient to create heat, blacken them, and deteriorate the fecula which they contain.
The dryers generally consist of an area of flat brick-work, covered with cement and surrounded by a wall two feet high. In dry weather, when it has not rained for a long time, and the soil is perfectly dry, any spot will answer for this purpose; but care must be taken not to use a damp place, which would destroy the crop.
Dryers may be formed at once, vhich will unite all the requisites favourable to the prompt and com plete drying of the leaves, by plaring all their sur faces in contact with a current ot air, and by permitting them to receive the retlecton of heat from the soil, which by its nature, can tlrow out a great quantity. These dryers consist of a number of poles placed horizontally and eqially distant, and supported by forked stakes, driven into the soil, which should be covered with vey dry white sand. The dryers must be located on in open spot, distant from any pond, river or trees and to windward of any cause which might produe dampness.
Whatever way be the mode employed to dry the leaves, the branches must be e[x]posed to the rays of the sun at eight o'clock at arthest, one separated from the other, and never in a heap. At mid-day they should be turned overer, (when the air is very dry, the second kind of dryers, of which we have spoken, will avoid this trouble.) At half past four, all that has been dried during the day, must be united in heaps and beaten with rods, in order to detach the leaves from the branches; the latter should be set apart. The leaves must then be collected with brooms (a few of the branches lied (ogether will answer this purpose,) and trans ported to a dry place. It will be well to cover them with mats or sail cloth, without any compression. However, should they not be perfectly dry, it will be more advantageous to open them on the floor of a dry store-house, and lay them in strata of three or four inches, turning them over during the night, in order to prevent the generation of heat. This accident, which may lead to the total loss of the crop, must be studiously avoided.
[Here follow remarks which do not apply to South Carolina.]
The heat of the sun during one day will not always be sufficient to dry the leaves properly; the operation must be recommenced on the day following at nine o'clock, laying the leaves two inches thick, turning them over at times with rakes or wooden shovels; at three or four o'clock, (never later, in order to prevent the absorption of any moisture from the evening air,) fan them, in or der to separate the seeds and small sticks, heap them in a dry stack-house, whose floor should be boarded; then they should be strongly compressed and covered with mats; in fine, every precaution should be taken to preserve them from dampness, and, above all, from rain.
The leaves of indigo are known to be perfectly dry when they preserve a perfect unstained green colour, somewhat paler than that of the fresh leaf; when they can be easily reduced to powder by crumbling them between the fingers; (when kept for some time, they lose, without any injury, a part of this quality, but they should never be stored without it;) when they have the smell of dried clover, {lucerne,) and are free from brown or blue spots. la the latter state, they would yield little indigo, and it would be impossible to extract any from leaves in which either of these colours should be predominant.
When the indigo leaves have been carefully dried and possess all the requisite qualities, they may be preserved without alteration during two months, in a dry store, and may even be transported in bags. They should, however, be visited at times, and should they present any appearance of dampness or blackness, it will be prudent to expose them to the sun on a dry day, and to manufacture them as soon as possible.
Manufacture of Indigo.
The difficulties which attend the dessication of leaves, vanish in dry seasons. The care which we bestow by this method is amply compensated by the facility with which indigo is manufactured from the dry leaves: an operation which formerly required much experience and many days of labour, is now performed in less than twelve hours, by an intelli gent person who has witnessed it once. There are no particular phenomena to be observed, and the fermentation of twenty or thirty hours, during which one was exposed to lose his crop, or deteriorate the quality of it, is now reduced to a simple infusion of two hours. It is the watch that now guides the se ries of operations which lead to the extraction of indigo, during which time, the workmen are no longer exposed to unhealthy effluvia, especially when the workshops are kept clean.
I shall briefly describe the method of manufacturing indigo on a small scale, and in such a manner that the smallest planters may execute it them selves at little expense, and without other utensils than those commonly required in a family.
Workshop.
The workshop will consist of
1. A log house twenty feet long and twelve or fifteen feet broad, with a door in the centre.
2. Nine empty claret casks.
3. Two tubs, made from a wine cask, sawed in two.
4. Two churn staffs, made with a piece of board nine or ten inches square, and a handle fastened perpendicularly in the centre, and two spatulas, or paddles of wood.
5. Four wooden frames, fifteen inches square, coveted with coarse cotton cloth.
6. Six calabashes, of different sizes.
7. A large kettle, capable of containing twenty gallons.
8. A skimmer with a long iron handle.
9. Three or four boxes, a foot square, and six inches deep, with moveable tops and bottoms, perforated with small holes (l-10th of an inch in diameter,) on all their surfaces.
10. Three or four pieces of coarse cotton cloth, eighteen inches square.
11. A few blocks of wood, ten inches square and six inches thick.
12. A long and stout pole, for a lever to press the Indigo.
13. A few mats.
Remarks on No. 2. - The casks must be set up right, and one of the heads of each must be taken out. The diameter of four of these heads must be diminished by one inch. Eight of the casks must be perforated through one of the staves at the bot tom, with a hole of three quarters of an inch in diameter, and four of these will moreover be perforated with a hole half an inch in diameter, and Tour inches higher than the others. The casks should be of the best kind, properly cleaned and htted with strong iron hoops. The four casks which have but one hole, are designed for steeping the leaves, and may be called steepers. The other four, which are perforated with two holes, may be called receivers. The union of one steeper and one receiver, is called a set. The ninth cask will contain lime water, and is called the lime cask.
No. 3. The two tubs must be scraped in order to remove all the tartar and colour of wine lees, with which this wood is always impregnated; they more over should be strengthened with iron hoops. They are destined to receive the settlings of the receivers and to support the filters, No. 5.
No. 5. - These frames may be made with any sort of wood, provided they be strong. Covered with cloth, they are used as filters to drain the indigo.
No. 13. - The straw mats are used to dry the in digo, and to supply the place of a drying house. - They may be suspended on poles, supported stakes driven into the ground.
Location of the Workshop
The workshop should be located as near as possible to water; whether a river or well. The water may be either sweet or salt, but as a portion of the former is always necessary for boiling and washing the indigo, it will be better to use it entirely. Indeed, the operation of washing may be dispensed with, when sweet water has been employed in sleeping the leaves. The limpidness of the water conduces, in a great measure, to the beauty of the product.
The steepers should be so elevated, that in with drawing the stoppers, the water may run into the receivers.
Manufacture.
* The French wine casks contain about sixty gallons.
** The weight of a man on the leaves will be sufficient; a greater weight might injure the quality of the indigo.When a sufficient quantity of dried leaves have been collected, nothing can be more easy than the extraction of indigo. The operation is reduced to this: First, forty-four gallons of water in one of the steepers, (it will then be three-fourths full,*) add thirty-five pounds of dried leaves, (they must be fanned when they have been kept more than a fort night,) steep the leaves well, agitating them by means of the churn-staff, (No. 4;) renew this agitation twice during the two hours which the infusion or steeping must last; place, after two hours steeping, a filter, (No. 5,) on the receiver; draw out the plug from the steeper, (the small portion of leaves which may come out will be retained in the filter,) and the clear liquor will fall into the receiver; when the liquor, which must be green, will no longer flow, add, at different times to the leaves in the steeper, fifteen or twenty quarts of water; place, on the leaves in the steeper, the head of the cask, and let them be compressed** so as to give out the last portion of liquid which they may contain; compress with the hands the few leaves which may remain on the filter. The latter part of these operations will only require five minutes.
*** At in the act of churning butterWe must now proceed to the beating of the liquid, which is performed by moving the churnstuffs up and down.*** (During this operation, which lasts three-fourths or one half hour, according to the quantity, the scum passes successively through different shades of blue, until it arrives at that of Persian blue. When it has attained this colour, it passes gradually to that of a light blueish grey. As soon as this tint appears, the beating must be dis continued; generally there appears a slight excess of beating. It is known to be terminated, when on putting a small portion of the liquid into a glass, there appears small grains, which are detached and precipitated by the addition of a few drops of lime water, leaving the liquid in which they swim, clear and of a dark yellow colour.) In operating quickly on small quantities, the beating may be generally con sidered as terminated in three-fourths of an hour. At this time, ten or twelve quarts of lime water must be added, and slightly agitated, to mix the liquids; then allow the whole to settle.
The lime water is prepared by throwing four or five pounds of good lime into a cask of water, agi tiling for a few minutes and allowing it to settle. It should always be prepared before hand, and employed in a perfectly limpid state. It is drawn from the casks by means of the stopper.
In half an hour after the beating has terminated, the indigo is generally deposited at the bottom of the receiver. The upper hole must then be opened, in order to allow the mother tenter to escape; the indigo which is found at the bottom in a liquid state, must be placed on a filter to drain it. In the mean time the copper boiler must be filled twothirds with water, and (ire applied; the indigo in paste must be mixed in a calabash, with a small quantity of boiling water, and when it no longer presents any lumps, it must be thrown into the boiler, after straining through a piece of coarse canvass. The ebulition of the water is of course stopped by this addition, but it soon recommences, and must be checked twice by the addition of cold water. The flakes which may float must be care fully removed with the skimmer; the boiler must then he filled with cold water, and the fire withdrawn. The whole must be allowed to settle. The limpid water is drawn off from the indigo, and the latter drained on a filter. Should the first draining of water carry along any indigo, it must be again filtered.
When the indigo is sufficiently drained, that is to say, when no more water escapes from it, and it has arrived at the consistence of a thick paste and begins to split and separate from the filter, it is to be removed with a spatula into a calabash, and there agitated, in order to give it a uniform consistence. A wet cloth, (No. 10,) must then be applied to the boxes, (No. 9,) and so carefully spread as to produce no plaits or folds. The indigo must then be put in the boxes, and covered over with the edges of the cloth. The cover of the box must then be fitted, one of the blocks (No. 11,) applied over it, and the whole pressed gradually. When the water ceases to flow by this compression, the cover is removed, and the loaf of indigo is allowed to remain an hour in the box, in order to dry the cloth. With this precaution, the loaf is easily re moved. It must then be divided in equal squares, with a knife or wire, as is used in soap making. They must then be dried on the mats, (No. 13.) - This last operation must not be performed too hasti ly; the indigo must be screened from a draft of air, which would cause it to split. Ten days are gene rally required to dry the loaves, and they should be frequently turned over during this time. The indigo is sometimes covered with efflorescences, which should be removed by a brush or rags; this friction gives it a copper cast, and is called dressing.
(From the Southern Agriculturist.)
On the Culture, Gathering and Dyeing of the Indigo Plant, and the Manufacture of Indigo - by the Marquis de Fougere.
[Translated from the French.]
The gentlemen in South Carolina being perfectly well acquainted with the culture of indigo and the choice of seeds and soil, it is deemed unnecessary to translate that part of the author's instructions which relate to these objects.
Gathering of Leaves.
The proper time for cutting the plants, may be known by various signs which are more or less certain; it will always be known when the plants have arrived at perfect maturity and contain the greatest quantity and best quality of fecula which they can produce, when the greater part are in full blossom, and the seeds begin to appear.
The branches of the plant must be cut at about one inch from the stalk, with pruning knives or any other sharp instrument. When, after some time, the principal branches will have become stouter, it will be well to leave them and only to cut the secondary ones, in the way above mentioned.
This relates only to the indigo plant of Senegal; if the Bengal plant be cultivated, it will be necessary to cut (with sickles,) the whole plant at four or five inches from the earth, leaving on the stalk the inferior part of the first branches. The leaves must never be torn from the branches; for they would no longer be susceptible of being properly dried for the manufacture of indigo.
The cutting should never begin, but five or six days after a rain and in a day of warm weather, so that the leaves may, in one day, acquire such a de gree of dryness as will permit them to be kept in a heap without fermenting until the next day.
As the leaves which have been cut at sunset, can pass the night without alteration, they may be gathered from five o'clock until night, and the work may be resumed in the morning, and continued until half past eight o'clock only. It will be easily perceived, that in cases of emergency, the work may last all night. In all cases the plants must be transported in bundles to the dryers, and there immediately opened. They should be compressed to gether during as little time as possible; one hour being often sufficient to create heat, blacken them, and deteriorate the fecula which they contain.
The dryers generally consist of an area of flat brick-work, covered with cement and surrounded by a wall two feet high. In dry weather, when it has not rained for a long time, and the soil is perfectly dry, any spot will answer for this purpose; but care must be taken not to use a damp place, which would destroy the crop.
Dryers may be formed at once, vhich will unite all the requisites favourable to the prompt and com plete drying of the leaves, by plaring all their sur faces in contact with a current ot air, and by permitting them to receive the retlecton of heat from the soil, which by its nature, can tlrow out a great quantity. These dryers consist of a number of poles placed horizontally and eqially distant, and supported by forked stakes, driven into the soil, which should be covered with vey dry white sand. The dryers must be located on in open spot, distant from any pond, river or trees and to windward of any cause which might produe dampness.
Whatever way be the mode employed to dry the leaves, the branches must be e[x]posed to the rays of the sun at eight o'clock at arthest, one separated from the other, and never in a heap. At mid-day they should be turned overer, (when the air is very dry, the second kind of dryers, of which we have spoken, will avoid this trouble.) At half past four, all that has been dried during the day, must be united in heaps and beaten with rods, in order to detach the leaves from the branches; the latter should be set apart. The leaves must then be collected with brooms (a few of the branches lied (ogether will answer this purpose,) and trans ported to a dry place. It will be well to cover them with mats or sail cloth, without any compression. However, should they not be perfectly dry, it will be more advantageous to open them on the floor of a dry store-house, and lay them in strata of three or four inches, turning them over during the night, in order to prevent the generation of heat. This accident, which may lead to the total loss of the crop, must be studiously avoided.
[Here follow remarks which do not apply to South Carolina.]
The heat of the sun during one day will not always be sufficient to dry the leaves properly; the operation must be recommenced on the day following at nine o'clock, laying the leaves two inches thick, turning them over at times with rakes or wooden shovels; at three or four o'clock, (never later, in order to prevent the absorption of any moisture from the evening air,) fan them, in or der to separate the seeds and small sticks, heap them in a dry stack-house, whose floor should be boarded; then they should be strongly compressed and covered with mats; in fine, every precaution should be taken to preserve them from dampness, and, above all, from rain.
The leaves of indigo are known to be perfectly dry when they preserve a perfect unstained green colour, somewhat paler than that of the fresh leaf; when they can be easily reduced to powder by crumbling them between the fingers; (when kept for some time, they lose, without any injury, a part of this quality, but they should never be stored without it;) when they have the smell of dried clover, {lucerne,) and are free from brown or blue spots. la the latter state, they would yield little indigo, and it would be impossible to extract any from leaves in which either of these colours should be predominant.
When the indigo leaves have been carefully dried and possess all the requisite qualities, they may be preserved without alteration during two months, in a dry store, and may even be transported in bags. They should, however, be visited at times, and should they present any appearance of dampness or blackness, it will be prudent to expose them to the sun on a dry day, and to manufacture them as soon as possible.
Manufacture of Indigo.
The difficulties which attend the dessication of leaves, vanish in dry seasons. The care which we bestow by this method is amply compensated by the facility with which indigo is manufactured from the dry leaves: an operation which formerly required much experience and many days of labour, is now performed in less than twelve hours, by an intelli gent person who has witnessed it once. There are no particular phenomena to be observed, and the fermentation of twenty or thirty hours, during which one was exposed to lose his crop, or deteriorate the quality of it, is now reduced to a simple infusion of two hours. It is the watch that now guides the se ries of operations which lead to the extraction of indigo, during which time, the workmen are no longer exposed to unhealthy effluvia, especially when the workshops are kept clean.
I shall briefly describe the method of manufacturing indigo on a small scale, and in such a manner that the smallest planters may execute it them selves at little expense, and without other utensils than those commonly required in a family.
Workshop.
The workshop will consist of
1. A log house twenty feet long and twelve or fifteen feet broad, with a door in the centre.
2. Nine empty claret casks.
3. Two tubs, made from a wine cask, sawed in two.
4. Two churn staffs, made with a piece of board nine or ten inches square, and a handle fastened perpendicularly in the centre, and two spatulas, or paddles of wood.
5. Four wooden frames, fifteen inches square, coveted with coarse cotton cloth.
6. Six calabashes, of different sizes.
7. A large kettle, capable of containing twenty gallons.
8. A skimmer with a long iron handle.
9. Three or four boxes, a foot square, and six inches deep, with moveable tops and bottoms, perforated with small holes (l-10th of an inch in diameter,) on all their surfaces.
10. Three or four pieces of coarse cotton cloth, eighteen inches square.
11. A few blocks of wood, ten inches square and six inches thick.
12. A long and stout pole, for a lever to press the Indigo.
13. A few mats.
Remarks on No. 2. - The casks must be set up right, and one of the heads of each must be taken out. The diameter of four of these heads must be diminished by one inch. Eight of the casks must be perforated through one of the staves at the bot tom, with a hole of three quarters of an inch in diameter, and four of these will moreover be perforated with a hole half an inch in diameter, and Tour inches higher than the others. The casks should be of the best kind, properly cleaned and htted with strong iron hoops. The four casks which have but one hole, are designed for steeping the leaves, and may be called steepers. The other four, which are perforated with two holes, may be called receivers. The union of one steeper and one receiver, is called a set. The ninth cask will contain lime water, and is called the lime cask.
No. 3. The two tubs must be scraped in order to remove all the tartar and colour of wine lees, with which this wood is always impregnated; they more over should be strengthened with iron hoops. They are destined to receive the settlings of the receivers and to support the filters, No. 5.
No. 5. - These frames may be made with any sort of wood, provided they be strong. Covered with cloth, they are used as filters to drain the indigo.
No. 13. - The straw mats are used to dry the in digo, and to supply the place of a drying house. - They may be suspended on poles, supported stakes driven into the ground.
Location of the Workshop
The workshop should be located as near as possible to water; whether a river or well. The water may be either sweet or salt, but as a portion of the former is always necessary for boiling and washing the indigo, it will be better to use it entirely. Indeed, the operation of washing may be dispensed with, when sweet water has been employed in sleeping the leaves. The limpidness of the water conduces, in a great measure, to the beauty of the product.
The steepers should be so elevated, that in with drawing the stoppers, the water may run into the receivers.
Manufacture.
* The French wine casks contain about sixty gallons.
** The weight of a man on the leaves will be sufficient; a greater weight might injure the quality of the indigo.When a sufficient quantity of dried leaves have been collected, nothing can be more easy than the extraction of indigo. The operation is reduced to this: First, forty-four gallons of water in one of the steepers, (it will then be three-fourths full,*) add thirty-five pounds of dried leaves, (they must be fanned when they have been kept more than a fort night,) steep the leaves well, agitating them by means of the churn-staff, (No. 4;) renew this agitation twice during the two hours which the infusion or steeping must last; place, after two hours steeping, a filter, (No. 5,) on the receiver; draw out the plug from the steeper, (the small portion of leaves which may come out will be retained in the filter,) and the clear liquor will fall into the receiver; when the liquor, which must be green, will no longer flow, add, at different times to the leaves in the steeper, fifteen or twenty quarts of water; place, on the leaves in the steeper, the head of the cask, and let them be compressed** so as to give out the last portion of liquid which they may contain; compress with the hands the few leaves which may remain on the filter. The latter part of these operations will only require five minutes.
*** At in the act of churning butterWe must now proceed to the beating of the liquid, which is performed by moving the churnstuffs up and down.*** (During this operation, which lasts three-fourths or one half hour, according to the quantity, the scum passes successively through different shades of blue, until it arrives at that of Persian blue. When it has attained this colour, it passes gradually to that of a light blueish grey. As soon as this tint appears, the beating must be dis continued; generally there appears a slight excess of beating. It is known to be terminated, when on putting a small portion of the liquid into a glass, there appears small grains, which are detached and precipitated by the addition of a few drops of lime water, leaving the liquid in which they swim, clear and of a dark yellow colour.) In operating quickly on small quantities, the beating may be generally con sidered as terminated in three-fourths of an hour. At this time, ten or twelve quarts of lime water must be added, and slightly agitated, to mix the liquids; then allow the whole to settle.
The lime water is prepared by throwing four or five pounds of good lime into a cask of water, agi tiling for a few minutes and allowing it to settle. It should always be prepared before hand, and employed in a perfectly limpid state. It is drawn from the casks by means of the stopper.
In half an hour after the beating has terminated, the indigo is generally deposited at the bottom of the receiver. The upper hole must then be opened, in order to allow the mother tenter to escape; the indigo which is found at the bottom in a liquid state, must be placed on a filter to drain it. In the mean time the copper boiler must be filled twothirds with water, and (ire applied; the indigo in paste must be mixed in a calabash, with a small quantity of boiling water, and when it no longer presents any lumps, it must be thrown into the boiler, after straining through a piece of coarse canvass. The ebulition of the water is of course stopped by this addition, but it soon recommences, and must be checked twice by the addition of cold water. The flakes which may float must be care fully removed with the skimmer; the boiler must then he filled with cold water, and the fire withdrawn. The whole must be allowed to settle. The limpid water is drawn off from the indigo, and the latter drained on a filter. Should the first draining of water carry along any indigo, it must be again filtered.
When the indigo is sufficiently drained, that is to say, when no more water escapes from it, and it has arrived at the consistence of a thick paste and begins to split and separate from the filter, it is to be removed with a spatula into a calabash, and there agitated, in order to give it a uniform consistence. A wet cloth, (No. 10,) must then be applied to the boxes, (No. 9,) and so carefully spread as to produce no plaits or folds. The indigo must then be put in the boxes, and covered over with the edges of the cloth. The cover of the box must then be fitted, one of the blocks (No. 11,) applied over it, and the whole pressed gradually. When the water ceases to flow by this compression, the cover is removed, and the loaf of indigo is allowed to remain an hour in the box, in order to dry the cloth. With this precaution, the loaf is easily re moved. It must then be divided in equal squares, with a knife or wire, as is used in soap making. They must then be dried on the mats, (No. 13.) - This last operation must not be performed too hasti ly; the indigo must be screened from a draft of air, which would cause it to split. Ten days are gene rally required to dry the loaves, and they should be frequently turned over during this time. The indigo is sometimes covered with efflorescences, which should be removed by a brush or rags; this friction gives it a copper cast, and is called dressing.
26.11.16
Allehanda. Sanitära undersökningar.
Finska apotekareföreningens tidskrift 2, 1915
I sin senaste rapport öfver undersökningar gjorda vid Helsingfors stads laboratorium framhåller laboratoriets föreståndare magister B. Geitlin bl. a. beträffande arsenik, färger m. m. följande:
De tidigare påbörjade arsenikundersökningarna ha fortgått å stadens laboratorium för sanitära undersökningar. Sålunda ha 14 olika prof på såväl herr- som damylletyger inköpts i olika affärer och underkastats analys. Samtliga tyger, med undantag af ett brunt ylletyg, som befanns innehålla den tillåtna gränsmängden arsenik, innehöllo endast svaga spår af arsenik.
Äfven ett antal torra färger ha undersökts hvaraf fyra vattenfärger, sådana allmänt användas af barn, samtliga arsenikfria.
Af oljefärger ha undersökts viktoriagrönt, kromgult, italienskt rödt, ultramarin, Casslers brunt och ha blott i den sistnämnda svaga spår af arsenik påvisats, medan de öfriga voro fria. Äfven ett prof kejsargrönt har uppköpts och befunnits innehålla inemot 27 procent arsenik.
Att denna synnerligen giftiga färg, som innehåller arsenik icke såsom förorening, utan såsom konstituerande beståndsdel, en färg, som af våra apotek icke utan vidare torde få utgijvas, skall fritt af våra färghandlande få tillsaluhållas, är en omständighet, som i högsta grad ger anledning till förvåning. Därtill säljes denna färg åt hvem som helst, utan att dess giftiga beskaffenhet på ringaste sätt å kärl eller påse deklareras. Det så sorgligt beryktade mordmålet Ikalis, hvarest sju personer förlorade lifvet, var justframkalladt af detta för en hvar lätt åtkomliga färgämne.
Laboratoriets föreståndare, magister B. Geitlin, har i anledning häraf hos hälsovårdsnämnden hemställt, huruvida icke åtgärder för afhjälpandet af detta missförhållande, åtminstone livad Helsingfors beträffar, borde vidtagas.
Å laboratoriet ha undersökningarna fortgått beträffandearsenikhalten, i synnerhet i hos oss tillsalubjudet garn, som i regel befunnits innehålla arsenik i enligt gällande förordning förbjudna mängder. Vid den fortsatta undersökningen ha tre prof från en affär i staden befunnits innehålla arsenik i sådana mängder att de enligt förordningen äro till försäljning förbjudna, hvaremot de i hygieniskt afseende voro tillfredsställande enligt de svenska normerna. Enär orsaken till att garn hos oss till största delen innehåller arsenik i förbjudna mängder ligger i en omotiverad stränghet i gällande förordning, hemställer laboratoriets föreståndare, att endast garn, som innehåller arsenik i mängder, hvilka verkligen kunde tänkas medföra fara för förgiftning, skulle inför hälsovårdsnämnden anmälas. I händelse gällande bestämmelser iakttagas, måste största delen af här tillsaluhållet garn tagas i beslag och åtal väckas, hvarigenom ett ofantligt afbräck skulle vållas i affärsmännens och fabrikanternas verksamhet och dock skulle orsaken härtill utgöras af en vara, som i andra länder får fritt försäljas. Genom dylika åtgärder skulle hos oss en icke eftersträvansvärd arsenikskräck uppammas, som speciellt för sjuka och nervösa personer kunde vara till skada.
Förslaget har af hälsovårdsnämnden godkänts.
I sin senaste rapport öfver undersökningar gjorda vid Helsingfors stads laboratorium framhåller laboratoriets föreståndare magister B. Geitlin bl. a. beträffande arsenik, färger m. m. följande:
De tidigare påbörjade arsenikundersökningarna ha fortgått å stadens laboratorium för sanitära undersökningar. Sålunda ha 14 olika prof på såväl herr- som damylletyger inköpts i olika affärer och underkastats analys. Samtliga tyger, med undantag af ett brunt ylletyg, som befanns innehålla den tillåtna gränsmängden arsenik, innehöllo endast svaga spår af arsenik.
Äfven ett antal torra färger ha undersökts hvaraf fyra vattenfärger, sådana allmänt användas af barn, samtliga arsenikfria.
Af oljefärger ha undersökts viktoriagrönt, kromgult, italienskt rödt, ultramarin, Casslers brunt och ha blott i den sistnämnda svaga spår af arsenik påvisats, medan de öfriga voro fria. Äfven ett prof kejsargrönt har uppköpts och befunnits innehålla inemot 27 procent arsenik.
Att denna synnerligen giftiga färg, som innehåller arsenik icke såsom förorening, utan såsom konstituerande beståndsdel, en färg, som af våra apotek icke utan vidare torde få utgijvas, skall fritt af våra färghandlande få tillsaluhållas, är en omständighet, som i högsta grad ger anledning till förvåning. Därtill säljes denna färg åt hvem som helst, utan att dess giftiga beskaffenhet på ringaste sätt å kärl eller påse deklareras. Det så sorgligt beryktade mordmålet Ikalis, hvarest sju personer förlorade lifvet, var justframkalladt af detta för en hvar lätt åtkomliga färgämne.
Laboratoriets föreståndare, magister B. Geitlin, har i anledning häraf hos hälsovårdsnämnden hemställt, huruvida icke åtgärder för afhjälpandet af detta missförhållande, åtminstone livad Helsingfors beträffar, borde vidtagas.
Å laboratoriet ha undersökningarna fortgått beträffandearsenikhalten, i synnerhet i hos oss tillsalubjudet garn, som i regel befunnits innehålla arsenik i enligt gällande förordning förbjudna mängder. Vid den fortsatta undersökningen ha tre prof från en affär i staden befunnits innehålla arsenik i sådana mängder att de enligt förordningen äro till försäljning förbjudna, hvaremot de i hygieniskt afseende voro tillfredsställande enligt de svenska normerna. Enär orsaken till att garn hos oss till största delen innehåller arsenik i förbjudna mängder ligger i en omotiverad stränghet i gällande förordning, hemställer laboratoriets föreståndare, att endast garn, som innehåller arsenik i mängder, hvilka verkligen kunde tänkas medföra fara för förgiftning, skulle inför hälsovårdsnämnden anmälas. I händelse gällande bestämmelser iakttagas, måste största delen af här tillsaluhållet garn tagas i beslag och åtal väckas, hvarigenom ett ofantligt afbräck skulle vållas i affärsmännens och fabrikanternas verksamhet och dock skulle orsaken härtill utgöras af en vara, som i andra länder får fritt försäljas. Genom dylika åtgärder skulle hos oss en icke eftersträvansvärd arsenikskräck uppammas, som speciellt för sjuka och nervösa personer kunde vara till skada.
Förslaget har af hälsovårdsnämnden godkänts.
25.11.16
Naamioiminen.
Hakkapeliitta 4, 26.1.1929
Maailmansota, joka niin mullistavasti vaikutti sodankäyntitapoihin, kehitti myös joukkojen ja sotakoneitten kätkemisen vihollisen tähystykseltä, naamioinnin, ennenaavistamatloman pitkälle. Tätä naamioimistaidon, "camouflagen”, kehitystä maailmansodassa kuvailee allaolevassa kirjoittajamme, joka on länsirintamalla kokemuksen koulun käynyt ja avoimin silmin asioihin perehtynyt.Hakkapeliitalle kirjoittanut ja kuvittanut luutnantti s. W. BORGMAN
Aina siitä lähtien, kun kauaskantava tykistö on ulottanut murhaavan tulensa toimintapiirin kauas yli ihmissilmän kantaman ja kun tykistön rautaiset ammukset on voitu muutamassa silmänräpäyksessä ohjata tähystyspallosta käsin pelottavalla tarkkuudella jokaiseen pisteeseen laajalla toiminta-alalla, kun lentäjän vaaniva silmä varsinaisen taistelurintaman takana on pystynyt tarkastelemaan vihollistinjojen kulisseja ja pienin sähkökipinöin antamaan merkkeja himokkaina odotteleville kaukotykeille, suunnaten ja ohjaten niiden silmänräpäyksessä esiinkohahtavia ammuksia, tai kun lentäjä tähänkään tyytymättä juuri ratkaisevana hetkenä on ryhtynyt pudottelemaan parabelikaaressa maata kohden lentäviä räsähteleviä pommejansa — aina siitä lähtien on tuo aikoinaan niin täyteensullottu taistelutanner muuttunut tyhjäksi, autioksi.
Minkä kuvan johdankaan muistelmistani mieleeni, kuvan vuosien 15 tai 18 päiviltä, kuvan slanderista, Verdunista, Artoisista tai Champagnesta, kuvan harvoista "idyllisista viikoista" miellyttavilla rintamanosilla, kuvan kuukausiapitkista raivoisista teräsrajuilmoista kranaattikuopissa, kuvan pian päättyneistä reippaista eteenpäinmarsseista niin kuva taistelutantereesta on aina ollut eloton, ihmistyhjä. Kuinka usein valtasikin mielen sama tunnelma kuin seisoessa yksinään lakastuvan luonnon keskellä. Ahdettuna kahden kiintopalloketjun väliin, mitkä kiintopallot varustettuina mustin ristein tai kirjavin ympyröin kohoavat suurten makkarain tavoin taivaanrannan yläpuolelle, leviää aavemainen seutu, jolta kaikki elämä näyttää tauonneen ja jolle vain kranaattien nostamat tulenleiskat tai ylös ilmoihin singahuttamat maasuihkut ja pitkät kaareliinoja muistuttavat valkoiset myrkkykaasupilvet antavat sitäkin kaameamman leiman. Yksitoikkoisesti surisee ystävän tai vihollislentäjän moottori tämän kuoleman maiseman yläpuolella. Toisinaan liikkuu penikulmia pitkä rintamalinja muutaman kilometrin eteen tai taaksepäin: silloin sukeltautuu metsänreunasta, joenrantamalta tai kylästa ihmisketju esiin, miesrivistö tai ehkä kolonna ihmisiä, eläimiä, tykkejä, vaunuja nopeasti kiiruhtaen johonkin toiseen metsikköön tai rauniokasaan ja sinne jäljettömiin kadoten yhtä pikaisesti kuin oli ilmestynytkin.
Taistelutanner oli siis kuitenkin ihmisten asuttama ja suuremmassa määrin kuin ehkä aikaisemmin. Se kuulostaa paradoksilta ja kuitenkin on se totta: mitä vähemmän ihmisiä saattoi nähdä, sitä enemmän oli heitä piilottautunut maanpinnan alie. Tuhansittain oli heitä kätkeytynyt juoksuhautojen komeroihin ja maanalaisiin asumuksiin, heitä oli patteripesäkkeissä ja yhä uudelleen syntyvissä kranaattikuopissa. Miehiämme piileskeli kylien kellareissa, kylien, jotka jo aikoja sitten olivat muuttuneet savuaviksi raunioläajiksi, heitä oli hiljalleen tulessa silpoutunut metsikön juuriverkon alia, heitä oli jyrkkien vuorenrinteiden pensaikoissa, rotkoissa ja repeytymissä, raunioituneiden kaivojen kansien alia, kuivuneissa kanavain uomissa, rautateiden mustuneiden vallien takana, niin vieläpä hautausmaillakin kuolleitten kivisissä asunnoissa! Siellä he oleskelivat yhdessä muiden aselajiemme kanssa, konekiväärit ja tykistö, kenttäkeittiöt ja räjähdysainevarastot hevosineen ja moottoreineen: kaikki toisinaan ihmeellisenä sekasotkuna. Aina yhteensullottuina ja ahtaissa oloissa. Kuinka kuuluikaan tuo sotilaallinen sääntö, joka yksinkertaisesti ja lakoonisesti ilmaisi meille sen välttämättömyyden, joka sai meidat siirtymaan hymyileviltä aurinkoisilta kentiltä tuohon myyrien ja rottien kosteaan, synkkään elämään? Lyhyessä muodossaanhan se kuului:
Paras turva vihollistulta vastaan on kätkeytyd vihollisen tähystykseltä.
*
Tuon saimme kaikki kokea omassa nahassamme sangen elävästi.
Kolme miestä kiipeää Bois des Corbeaux’n jyrkkää rikkiammuttua rinnettä pitkin. Jumala nähköön mitä heillä on siellä tekemistä näin keskellä valoisaa päivää, vaikka onhan tosin matkaa lähimmälle ranskalaiselle linjalle noin kaksi kilometriä. Ranskalaiset ovat kaivautuneet Les Caurettesin eteläpuolelle näkymättömiin. Miehet ajattelevat varmasti: eipä väliä, meitä muutamaa miespahasta ei varmastikaan aleta tykeillä ampua. Me seuraamme ensimäisestä juoksuhaudasta jännittyneinä heidän kulkuaan, tunnemme uteliaisuutta, ironiaa, huolta, nähdessämme kuinka nuo kolme miestä hypähtelevät kranaattikuopalta toiselle. Pudistamme arvellen päitämme: kunhan kaikki vain kävisi hyvin. Ja kas noin: nyt tärähtelevät jo Chattancourtin yläpuolella väijyntäpatterin kirkkaat metalliset laukaukset, päittemme yläpuolella viheltää kiukkuisesti, kolme, viisi, kymmenen räsähtelevää savupilveä tanssii tuon pienen miesryhmän ympärillä, joka nyt juoksee henkensä edestä epätoivon nopeudella syöksyen yli matalan pensaston, horjahdellen, kompastellen, nousten uudelleen ylös, kiiruhtaen jälleen eteenpäin, jälleen kaatuillen, kunnes se ei enaa kohonnut. Niin, yksityisiakin sotilaita ammutaan siis tykeillä. Eräs meikäläisistä, joka oli erikoisen tarkka laskemaan laukauksia, laski niita 42 tai 43, tarkkaan ei hänkään voinut sitä sanoa, kaikki oli käynyt niin nopeasti. Ja nyt pieni laskuesimerkki: kun 3 miehen kaatamiseen tarvitaan 40 ammusta, niin tuhannella ammuksella voidaan . . . no, niin, lienee parasta jättää loppu lukijan runollisen aritmetiikan varaan.
Ensimäisestä juoksuhautalinjastamme Les Caurettesin rikkirevityillä rinteillä työntyy n. 50 m suoraan eteenpäin eräs ulommaisista kuuntelu- ja tähystysasemistamme, suoraan kohden vihollislinjoja, jotka ovat n. 800 m päässä allamme laaksossa. Tämän ulkonevan aseman kärjessä on parhain konekiväärini, joka täältä käsin hallitsee koko seutua silloin kun niin tarvitaan. Siinä kohden, missä etuasema yhtyy ensimäiseen juoksuhautalinjaamme, on minulla mukava 8 porrasaskelmaa syvä maakolo asuntonani. Silloin ihmettelin suuresti, miten iltapäivisin melkoisen säännöllisesti sain katolleni klo 3 ja 5 välillä muutamia raskaita ammuksia. Nyt en enää ihmettele: miksen älynnyt silloin ripustaa jotain rääsyä mustalle oviaukolle, joka ikäänkuin kirkui jokaiselle vihollislentäjälle: Hei, täällä oleskelevat ”les boches” rotanloukossaan! Ainoastaan vaivaiset 50 m erottivat minut konekivääristäni, mutta sinne oli mahdotonta päiväsaikana päästä. Ei siksi, että laaksossa oleskeleva ranskalainen jalkaväki olisi kivääritulellaan tehnyt tuon matkan kuolemantieksi nuo muurahaiset laaksossa eivät päivisin itsekään voineet päitään kohottaa ilman ettei konekivääri 4 Kuolleen Miehen kukkulalta olisi ryhtynyt heitä paikalla seulomaan vaan yksinkertaisesti siitä syystä, että tuolla kaukana Esnesin luona neliömuotoisessa metsikössä, Marre-selänteen synkillä linnoitetuilla rinteillä, noin 4—5 km. päässä linjoiltamme, olivat kirotut kenttätykistöpatterit väijyksissä, joista eräs oli suorittanut jo aikoja sitten hakuammuntansa juuri ulkonevaan asemaamme. Me olimme saaneet niistä huonoja kokemuksia, tarvittiin tuskin 10 sekuntia, niin jo kumahtelivat niiden laukaukset ja samalla jo levisivät välähtelevät teräksiset savupilvet räjähtelevistä kranaateista, jotka rautaisen harjan tavoin lakaisivat juoksuhaudan pintaa. Iloitsin hengessäni joka kerta, kun varhaisena aamuhetkenä tarkastava esiupseeri halusi ehdottomasti nähdä tärkeän etuasemamme. Varotuksiini sain usein vastaukseksi halveksivan: ”mitä turhia, ei kai se sentään liene niin vaarallista” tai yksinkertaisesti ”pelkäättekö?” Ja säännöllisesti pääsi esiupseeri eteneeteenpäin, maan matkan puolitiehen, kun teras- ja maakappaleet sinkoilivat hanen korvissaan muodostaen paluun hyvinkin kiireiseksi. ”Näytte olevan oikeassa”, sain silloin kuulla hyvästiksi.
Yleensä oli elämä Maas-joen vasemmaila rannalla verrattain vaihtelurikasta. Juuri eilenhän ranskalaiset koettivat vetää meitä nenästä liikuttavalla naivisuudella. 1,500 heikäläistä oli asettautunut pitkään, melko suoraan, hyljättyyn juoksuhautaan. Varovaisina kuten ainakin ihmiset, jotka usein ovat polttaneet kyntensä, olivat he peittäneet päänsä telttakankaalla, minkä alla he makasivat koko päivän aivan liikkumattomina, voidakseen välttää tähystäjiemme vaanivan silmän. Tämä heidän toiveensa kuitenkin petti, sillä eräs konekiväärinjohtajistani havaitsi heidät iltapäivällä. Kun asia ei mitenkään ollut laadultaan kiireellinen, laskimme etäisyyden ja suuntasimme konekiväärimme kaikkien taiteen sääntöjen mukaan niin, että ne pääsivät pyyhkimään juoksuhautaa pituussuunnassa ja odottelimme rauhallisina pimeän tuloa. Kun erään samalla tavoin suunnatun cm. patterin ensimäinen kranaatti suhahti korkeassa kaaressa päittemme yli, aloimme me myös räiskyttää. Noin neljännestunnissa oli tämä pikkusota ohi. Kaytimme siihen n. 2,000 konekiväärilaukausta ja 50 haubitsin kranaattia. Se riitti, sillä seuraavana aamuna oli juoksuhauta tyhjä. Punarististen saniteettiautojen pitkä rivi, joka säännöllisesti klo 9 aamuisin kiemurteli viertotietä pitkin Esnesista, oli kuitenkin tällä kertaa tavallista pitempi.
Niin, turvassa oleminen tähystykseltä merkitsee turvassa olemista tulelta, mutta ainoastaan siinä tapauksessa, että siitä on oikealla tavalla huolehdittu. Miten voikaan vanhoista miehistä kokoonpannun työkomppanian johtaja tehdä sellaisen anteeksiantamattoman erehdyksen, että hän johdatti "veteraaninsa" keskellä kirkkainta päivää Mont Fauconin keilanmuotoisen silhuetin yli, mikä kukkula oli noin 6 à 7 km. omien linjojemme takana? Olimme tuskin ennättäneet havaita tuon tiheissä rivein marssivan komppanian kuvastuvan kirkasta korkeata taivaanrantaa vasten, kun jo pari ranskalaista haubitsia äännähti vihaisesti ja heti sen perästä niiden kranaattien nostattamat mahtavat mustat savupatsaat kohosivat tuon nyt kaikille tahoille hajaantuvan joukon keskeltä. Ja miksen itse antanut Marne-etenemisemme aikana kesakuussa 18 komppaniamme ajopelien, vetaytya avoimelta kadulta vieressa olevaan pensaikkoon ennenkuin kaksi ranskalaista lentokonetta, jotka äkkiä olivat ne havainneet, olivat heittäneet niiden niskaan muutamia pommeja? Muutamissa tilaisuuksissa on todellakin parasta olla varovainen. Voisin luetella tusinoittain tämänkaltaisia esimerkkejä. Ei siis ihme, että pian oli kuin piirrettynä ruumiissamme ja hengessämme: paras turva vihollistulelta on olla näkymättömissä. Mitä hyötyä onkaan kranaatinkestävistä turvapaikoista 4 metrin paksuisine maakattoineen, kun tuolla toisella puolen vihollisen 22” tai 28" patteri tietää, missä ne sijaitsevat? Mitä on linnake nykyisin muuta kuin jättiläismagneetti, joka vetää puoleensa vihollisen tulen useita tuhansia tonneja räjähdysainetta ja terästä siksi, kunnes linnake on lopullisesti tuhottu.
On totta, etten ole varma mitä parhaimmin naamioidussa maakolossanikaan, en näkymättömässä lehtimajassani tiheässä metsikössä tai rotanloukossani, jonka olen kaivanut talon raunioihin. Vihollisen tulijyrä (vihollistykistön ampuma hiljalleen etenevä tuliseinä), sen harhaileva hakutuli, joka ei jätä mitään nurkkausta koskematta, eivät tee minun suhteeni silloinkaan mitään poikkeusta. Mutta ero on kuitenkin huomattava, jos tuo tuli riehuu 3 tai 4 lyhyttä minuuttia minun tai miehieni olopaikan edustalla, tai jos se on suunnattu insernaalisella täsmällisyydellä puolen tunnin ajan turvapaikkoihimme, etenkin jos tällöin erikoisella rakastettavaisuudella on konserttiin sisällytetty viela 15, 19, niin miksei ehkä järeampiäkin kalibereita tai jos jalkaväkihyökkäyksen aikana erikoinen patteri osottaa meille huomaavaisuuttaan.
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Joukkojen toisistaan eroittaminen ulkonäkönsä puolesta loppui jo sodan alussa. Ainoastaan Ranska ja Belgia marssittivat joukkonsa taistelutantereille kirjavin rauhanaikaisin värein, kun sitävastoin heidän liittolaisensa ja vastustajansa olivat pukeutuneet vähemmän näkyvään khakikeltaiseen tai kenttäharmaaseen. Ero oli kuitenkin vain sodan ensi päivinä huomattavan suuri. Puolueettomalla pensselillä maalasi slanderin lieju ja Ranskan kalkki ja liitu pian ystävän ja vihollisen samalla likasuojelusvärillä. Länsirintamalla oli 1915 kaikki kenttäsinistä, kenttäharmaata, kenttäruskeata ja kenttäkeitaista. Jokainen oli vakuutettu oman värinsä etevämmyydestä. Aseet, vaatteet, tykit, ajopelit, kaikki olivat vain kenttä... Koneita käyttelevälle miehistölle oli annettu yksinkertainen, selvä toimintaohje. Kirves olalle ja lähimpään metsään, mistä tuoduilla pienillä puilla ja oksilla peitettiin tykit, patterit, kolonnat, varastot j.n.e. Sitä, että näiden lehvät lakastuivat jo muutaman viikon kuluttua ja että yhdessä yössä saattoi hyvinhoidetun vihreän pellon keskelle nousta neljä säännöllistä pientä lehdikköä, mitkä kaikki kuuluivat yhteen patteriin, sitä ei silloin vielä tultu ajatelleeksi. Vasta sitten, kun oli enemmän tykkejä ja vähemmän sotilaita, kun oli oltu tarpeeksi kauan tykistötulen kiduttavassa insernossa, josta ehkä olisi voitu päästä, vasta sitten kun tarpeeksi paljon korvaamatonta verta ja ihmishenkiä oh menetetty, silloin vasta kiinnitettiin näihin seikkoihin erikoista huomiota.
Nyt ei kaivettu ainoatakaan juoksuhautaa, maanalaista turvapaikkaa, patteriasemaa tai ammusvarastoa ilman, ettei koko työtä olisi viimeisinä aamutunteina ennen pimeän loppua peitetty huolellisesti verkoilla tai maalla, joka oli tarkalleen samannäköistä kuin ympäristökin. Nyt eivät enää mitkään suljetut pataljoonat marssineet suojattomia teitä ja katuja pitkin, joihin jo kauan sitten oli suunnattu neljä tai kahdeksan himokasta tykkiä, jotka vain odottivat hetkeä syytääkseen kuolemaa ja hävitystä noitten eteenpäin marssivien pahaa aavistamattomien joukkojen keskelle. Nyt eivät mitkään patterit rientäneet urhokkaan komeasti yli avointen kenttien, sillä vaaniva tykistölentäjä voi pienen raketin, savumerkin tai sähkökipinöiden avulla saada pian parin vihollispatterin tulen keskeyttämään sen loistavan kulun, vaan ne etenivät varovaisesti, peitetysti. Jalkaväki, olipa se sitten etulinjoilla tai reservissä, turvautui lapioihinsa ja telttakankaihinsa, silloin kun se ei ollut juuri marssimassa.
Yhä luonnollisemmaksi, erottamattomammaksi ja pettävämmäksi muodostui peittämisen taito tuhoaseiden pikainen kehittyminen kiihotti sitä. Se kuului osana sotilassivistykseen, sitä ryhdyttiin tieteellisesti tutkimaan ja tänä hetkenä se muodostaa jo pienen erikoistieteen, jota kutsutaan camouflageksi, naamioimiseksi, t.s. Se on tiede, jonka avulla voi maastossa tehdä itsensä huomaamattomaksi. Apukeinoista, joita tällöin käytetään, on kaksi uutuutensa puolesta tullut huomattavaksi. Ensimäinen näistä on naamioiminen verkoin ja peittein. Verkot ovat suurin silmukoin varustettuja, niihin kiinnitetään kirjavia juovia, sammalta, oksia y.m., niin että ne muistuttavat ulkonäöltään mahdollisimman paljon ympäröivää seutua. Niillä peitetään sitten salattavat esineet: maanalaisten asumusten aukot, ammus- ja tarveainevarastot, patteriasemat, vieläpä kokonaiset vaunukentät ja kasarmit. Myöskin tärkeät liikennelinjat tulialueella peitetään täten, ei linjojen suojelemiseksi, vaan estääkseen vihollista havaitsemasta siellä tapahtuvaa liikettä. Tällöin asetetaan verkot ja peitetään usein pystysuoraan sivuttain tai suoraan yli kulkuväylien kulissien tavoin.
Toisena apukeinona käytetään salattavien esineiden maalaamista kirjavin värein ja tämä on herättänyt vieläkin enemmän huomiota. Jo muutamien sotaviikkojen kuluttua havaittiin, ettei sotaesineiden varsinainen väri niinkään paljon herättänyt huomiota, kuin niiden pahin ilmiantaja, liikunto, ja senjälkeen niiden muoto. Ei parhainkaan yksivärinen suojelusväri voinut estää, ettei valon ja varjon vaikutuksesta esineen muoto esim. tykin esiintynyt aivan selväpiirteisenä. Nykyisen suojelusvärityksen tehtävänä onkin (suojelusvärityksen, jonka värit ja käyttötapa antavat ensinnä aiheen luulla, että niitä on pikemminkin käytellyt jokin hullu kuin hyvinkoulutettu, tieteellisesti asiaan perehtynyt henkilö) juuri etusijassa piirteiden ja ääriviivojen "katkaiseminen". Kaikki suuremmat pinnat varustetaan tällöin juovilla, kaikki pitkät esineet (tykin putket j.n.e.) pienillä värikkäillä läiskillä. Osat, jotka tavallisuudessa ovat tummia, maalataan kirkkain värein ja päinvastoin. Värien valinnan määrää seutu: joko kirkas, synkkä tai niiden väliltä kaksi tai kolme väriä. Jos väritykseen käytetään liian heikkoja värejä, niin sulavat värit jo pienenkin etäisyyden päästä harmaaksi massaksi, ja esineen petol- Hset ääriviivat, jotka juuri oli salattavat, piirtyvät jäi leen selvinä esiin.
Tässä on siis avain nykyiseen kummalliseen ”sotaväritykseen”, josta itse luontokin esittää niin monta erinomaista esimerkkiä (kyykäärme, ahven, kuikka, ilves ja monta muuta, mutta ennen kaikkea myrmecophaga juhata, muurahaiskarhu). Kehitys sodan aikana kulki luonnollisesti epävarmasti, hapuillen ja etsiskellen eteenpäin. Kokeiltiin varovaisesti pienin väripinnoin, kirjavin pistein ja kapein viivoin. Vielä viimeisenä sotavuotena, kun naamioiminen ja väritys olivat vallan yleisiä, kun konekivääri väritettiin yhtä hyvin kuin tykkikin, rautatievaunu samoin kuin höyrylaivakin, lentokoneet, kasarmit j.n.e. Mitä kirjavimmin värein, saattoi mitä parhaimmin onnistuneen värityksen rinnalla tavata jotain vasta aivan alkuasteella olevaa, epäröivää ja hapuilevaa. Ei myöskään puuttunut tapauksia, joissa mentiin liiallisuuksiin, etenkin kunnostautuivat Yhdysvallat tässä suhteessa. Hevosten värittäminen on sotilaallisesti katsoen leikkiä, muutoin eläinrääkkäystä. Ja miksi rautatievaunut väritettiin, sitä en vielä tänäänkään käsitä.
Camouflage vaatii hyvää havaintokykyä ja ajattelua. Teräskypäri ei ole niinkään arka muotonsa kuin loisteensa puolesta. Jollei sitä onnistuta verustamaan himmeällä värillä, mikä ei heijasta valonsäteitä, niin on varmasti kangaspäällinen paljon parempi kuin muuten parhaimmatkaan värit. Tuskin mikään muu sotatieteen haara lähentelee niin suuressa määrin markkinamaisuutta ja kuitenkin todellisuudessa vaatii niin tavatonta koulutusta kuin camouflage.
Kuten jo edellä on mainittu, ovat suojelusvärit ja -verkot vain vähäinen osa siitä, mikä sisältyy sanaan camouflage. Tulemme myöhemmin lehdessämme antamaan muutamia esimerkkejä muilta aloilta.
Ei kuitenkaan koskaan saa unhoittaa, että naamioiminen on vain apukeino, eikä tarkotusperä. Sotilas ei ole taistelutantereella vain sitä varten, että hän piilottuisi, vaan taistellakseen, käyttääkseen taistelukoneita tai tehdäkseen muuta työtä. Toiselta puolen on muistettava ja etenkin on johtajien otettava se huomioon että taitavalla naamioimisella voidaan suuressa määrin säästää joukkojen verta ja hermovoimaa, voidaanpa ne toisinaan pelastaakin varmasta häviöstä.
Maailmansota, joka niin mullistavasti vaikutti sodankäyntitapoihin, kehitti myös joukkojen ja sotakoneitten kätkemisen vihollisen tähystykseltä, naamioinnin, ennenaavistamatloman pitkälle. Tätä naamioimistaidon, "camouflagen”, kehitystä maailmansodassa kuvailee allaolevassa kirjoittajamme, joka on länsirintamalla kokemuksen koulun käynyt ja avoimin silmin asioihin perehtynyt.Hakkapeliitalle kirjoittanut ja kuvittanut luutnantti s. W. BORGMAN
Aina siitä lähtien, kun kauaskantava tykistö on ulottanut murhaavan tulensa toimintapiirin kauas yli ihmissilmän kantaman ja kun tykistön rautaiset ammukset on voitu muutamassa silmänräpäyksessä ohjata tähystyspallosta käsin pelottavalla tarkkuudella jokaiseen pisteeseen laajalla toiminta-alalla, kun lentäjän vaaniva silmä varsinaisen taistelurintaman takana on pystynyt tarkastelemaan vihollistinjojen kulisseja ja pienin sähkökipinöin antamaan merkkeja himokkaina odotteleville kaukotykeille, suunnaten ja ohjaten niiden silmänräpäyksessä esiinkohahtavia ammuksia, tai kun lentäjä tähänkään tyytymättä juuri ratkaisevana hetkenä on ryhtynyt pudottelemaan parabelikaaressa maata kohden lentäviä räsähteleviä pommejansa — aina siitä lähtien on tuo aikoinaan niin täyteensullottu taistelutanner muuttunut tyhjäksi, autioksi.
Minkä kuvan johdankaan muistelmistani mieleeni, kuvan vuosien 15 tai 18 päiviltä, kuvan slanderista, Verdunista, Artoisista tai Champagnesta, kuvan harvoista "idyllisista viikoista" miellyttavilla rintamanosilla, kuvan kuukausiapitkista raivoisista teräsrajuilmoista kranaattikuopissa, kuvan pian päättyneistä reippaista eteenpäinmarsseista niin kuva taistelutantereesta on aina ollut eloton, ihmistyhjä. Kuinka usein valtasikin mielen sama tunnelma kuin seisoessa yksinään lakastuvan luonnon keskellä. Ahdettuna kahden kiintopalloketjun väliin, mitkä kiintopallot varustettuina mustin ristein tai kirjavin ympyröin kohoavat suurten makkarain tavoin taivaanrannan yläpuolelle, leviää aavemainen seutu, jolta kaikki elämä näyttää tauonneen ja jolle vain kranaattien nostamat tulenleiskat tai ylös ilmoihin singahuttamat maasuihkut ja pitkät kaareliinoja muistuttavat valkoiset myrkkykaasupilvet antavat sitäkin kaameamman leiman. Yksitoikkoisesti surisee ystävän tai vihollislentäjän moottori tämän kuoleman maiseman yläpuolella. Toisinaan liikkuu penikulmia pitkä rintamalinja muutaman kilometrin eteen tai taaksepäin: silloin sukeltautuu metsänreunasta, joenrantamalta tai kylästa ihmisketju esiin, miesrivistö tai ehkä kolonna ihmisiä, eläimiä, tykkejä, vaunuja nopeasti kiiruhtaen johonkin toiseen metsikköön tai rauniokasaan ja sinne jäljettömiin kadoten yhtä pikaisesti kuin oli ilmestynytkin.
Taistelutanner oli siis kuitenkin ihmisten asuttama ja suuremmassa määrin kuin ehkä aikaisemmin. Se kuulostaa paradoksilta ja kuitenkin on se totta: mitä vähemmän ihmisiä saattoi nähdä, sitä enemmän oli heitä piilottautunut maanpinnan alie. Tuhansittain oli heitä kätkeytynyt juoksuhautojen komeroihin ja maanalaisiin asumuksiin, heitä oli patteripesäkkeissä ja yhä uudelleen syntyvissä kranaattikuopissa. Miehiämme piileskeli kylien kellareissa, kylien, jotka jo aikoja sitten olivat muuttuneet savuaviksi raunioläajiksi, heitä oli hiljalleen tulessa silpoutunut metsikön juuriverkon alia, heitä oli jyrkkien vuorenrinteiden pensaikoissa, rotkoissa ja repeytymissä, raunioituneiden kaivojen kansien alia, kuivuneissa kanavain uomissa, rautateiden mustuneiden vallien takana, niin vieläpä hautausmaillakin kuolleitten kivisissä asunnoissa! Siellä he oleskelivat yhdessä muiden aselajiemme kanssa, konekiväärit ja tykistö, kenttäkeittiöt ja räjähdysainevarastot hevosineen ja moottoreineen: kaikki toisinaan ihmeellisenä sekasotkuna. Aina yhteensullottuina ja ahtaissa oloissa. Kuinka kuuluikaan tuo sotilaallinen sääntö, joka yksinkertaisesti ja lakoonisesti ilmaisi meille sen välttämättömyyden, joka sai meidat siirtymaan hymyileviltä aurinkoisilta kentiltä tuohon myyrien ja rottien kosteaan, synkkään elämään? Lyhyessä muodossaanhan se kuului:
Paras turva vihollistulta vastaan on kätkeytyd vihollisen tähystykseltä.
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Tuon saimme kaikki kokea omassa nahassamme sangen elävästi.
Kolme miestä kiipeää Bois des Corbeaux’n jyrkkää rikkiammuttua rinnettä pitkin. Jumala nähköön mitä heillä on siellä tekemistä näin keskellä valoisaa päivää, vaikka onhan tosin matkaa lähimmälle ranskalaiselle linjalle noin kaksi kilometriä. Ranskalaiset ovat kaivautuneet Les Caurettesin eteläpuolelle näkymättömiin. Miehet ajattelevat varmasti: eipä väliä, meitä muutamaa miespahasta ei varmastikaan aleta tykeillä ampua. Me seuraamme ensimäisestä juoksuhaudasta jännittyneinä heidän kulkuaan, tunnemme uteliaisuutta, ironiaa, huolta, nähdessämme kuinka nuo kolme miestä hypähtelevät kranaattikuopalta toiselle. Pudistamme arvellen päitämme: kunhan kaikki vain kävisi hyvin. Ja kas noin: nyt tärähtelevät jo Chattancourtin yläpuolella väijyntäpatterin kirkkaat metalliset laukaukset, päittemme yläpuolella viheltää kiukkuisesti, kolme, viisi, kymmenen räsähtelevää savupilveä tanssii tuon pienen miesryhmän ympärillä, joka nyt juoksee henkensä edestä epätoivon nopeudella syöksyen yli matalan pensaston, horjahdellen, kompastellen, nousten uudelleen ylös, kiiruhtaen jälleen eteenpäin, jälleen kaatuillen, kunnes se ei enaa kohonnut. Niin, yksityisiakin sotilaita ammutaan siis tykeillä. Eräs meikäläisistä, joka oli erikoisen tarkka laskemaan laukauksia, laski niita 42 tai 43, tarkkaan ei hänkään voinut sitä sanoa, kaikki oli käynyt niin nopeasti. Ja nyt pieni laskuesimerkki: kun 3 miehen kaatamiseen tarvitaan 40 ammusta, niin tuhannella ammuksella voidaan . . . no, niin, lienee parasta jättää loppu lukijan runollisen aritmetiikan varaan.
Ensimäisestä juoksuhautalinjastamme Les Caurettesin rikkirevityillä rinteillä työntyy n. 50 m suoraan eteenpäin eräs ulommaisista kuuntelu- ja tähystysasemistamme, suoraan kohden vihollislinjoja, jotka ovat n. 800 m päässä allamme laaksossa. Tämän ulkonevan aseman kärjessä on parhain konekiväärini, joka täältä käsin hallitsee koko seutua silloin kun niin tarvitaan. Siinä kohden, missä etuasema yhtyy ensimäiseen juoksuhautalinjaamme, on minulla mukava 8 porrasaskelmaa syvä maakolo asuntonani. Silloin ihmettelin suuresti, miten iltapäivisin melkoisen säännöllisesti sain katolleni klo 3 ja 5 välillä muutamia raskaita ammuksia. Nyt en enää ihmettele: miksen älynnyt silloin ripustaa jotain rääsyä mustalle oviaukolle, joka ikäänkuin kirkui jokaiselle vihollislentäjälle: Hei, täällä oleskelevat ”les boches” rotanloukossaan! Ainoastaan vaivaiset 50 m erottivat minut konekivääristäni, mutta sinne oli mahdotonta päiväsaikana päästä. Ei siksi, että laaksossa oleskeleva ranskalainen jalkaväki olisi kivääritulellaan tehnyt tuon matkan kuolemantieksi nuo muurahaiset laaksossa eivät päivisin itsekään voineet päitään kohottaa ilman ettei konekivääri 4 Kuolleen Miehen kukkulalta olisi ryhtynyt heitä paikalla seulomaan vaan yksinkertaisesti siitä syystä, että tuolla kaukana Esnesin luona neliömuotoisessa metsikössä, Marre-selänteen synkillä linnoitetuilla rinteillä, noin 4—5 km. päässä linjoiltamme, olivat kirotut kenttätykistöpatterit väijyksissä, joista eräs oli suorittanut jo aikoja sitten hakuammuntansa juuri ulkonevaan asemaamme. Me olimme saaneet niistä huonoja kokemuksia, tarvittiin tuskin 10 sekuntia, niin jo kumahtelivat niiden laukaukset ja samalla jo levisivät välähtelevät teräksiset savupilvet räjähtelevistä kranaateista, jotka rautaisen harjan tavoin lakaisivat juoksuhaudan pintaa. Iloitsin hengessäni joka kerta, kun varhaisena aamuhetkenä tarkastava esiupseeri halusi ehdottomasti nähdä tärkeän etuasemamme. Varotuksiini sain usein vastaukseksi halveksivan: ”mitä turhia, ei kai se sentään liene niin vaarallista” tai yksinkertaisesti ”pelkäättekö?” Ja säännöllisesti pääsi esiupseeri eteneeteenpäin, maan matkan puolitiehen, kun teras- ja maakappaleet sinkoilivat hanen korvissaan muodostaen paluun hyvinkin kiireiseksi. ”Näytte olevan oikeassa”, sain silloin kuulla hyvästiksi.
Yleensä oli elämä Maas-joen vasemmaila rannalla verrattain vaihtelurikasta. Juuri eilenhän ranskalaiset koettivat vetää meitä nenästä liikuttavalla naivisuudella. 1,500 heikäläistä oli asettautunut pitkään, melko suoraan, hyljättyyn juoksuhautaan. Varovaisina kuten ainakin ihmiset, jotka usein ovat polttaneet kyntensä, olivat he peittäneet päänsä telttakankaalla, minkä alla he makasivat koko päivän aivan liikkumattomina, voidakseen välttää tähystäjiemme vaanivan silmän. Tämä heidän toiveensa kuitenkin petti, sillä eräs konekiväärinjohtajistani havaitsi heidät iltapäivällä. Kun asia ei mitenkään ollut laadultaan kiireellinen, laskimme etäisyyden ja suuntasimme konekiväärimme kaikkien taiteen sääntöjen mukaan niin, että ne pääsivät pyyhkimään juoksuhautaa pituussuunnassa ja odottelimme rauhallisina pimeän tuloa. Kun erään samalla tavoin suunnatun cm. patterin ensimäinen kranaatti suhahti korkeassa kaaressa päittemme yli, aloimme me myös räiskyttää. Noin neljännestunnissa oli tämä pikkusota ohi. Kaytimme siihen n. 2,000 konekiväärilaukausta ja 50 haubitsin kranaattia. Se riitti, sillä seuraavana aamuna oli juoksuhauta tyhjä. Punarististen saniteettiautojen pitkä rivi, joka säännöllisesti klo 9 aamuisin kiemurteli viertotietä pitkin Esnesista, oli kuitenkin tällä kertaa tavallista pitempi.
Niin, turvassa oleminen tähystykseltä merkitsee turvassa olemista tulelta, mutta ainoastaan siinä tapauksessa, että siitä on oikealla tavalla huolehdittu. Miten voikaan vanhoista miehistä kokoonpannun työkomppanian johtaja tehdä sellaisen anteeksiantamattoman erehdyksen, että hän johdatti "veteraaninsa" keskellä kirkkainta päivää Mont Fauconin keilanmuotoisen silhuetin yli, mikä kukkula oli noin 6 à 7 km. omien linjojemme takana? Olimme tuskin ennättäneet havaita tuon tiheissä rivein marssivan komppanian kuvastuvan kirkasta korkeata taivaanrantaa vasten, kun jo pari ranskalaista haubitsia äännähti vihaisesti ja heti sen perästä niiden kranaattien nostattamat mahtavat mustat savupatsaat kohosivat tuon nyt kaikille tahoille hajaantuvan joukon keskeltä. Ja miksen itse antanut Marne-etenemisemme aikana kesakuussa 18 komppaniamme ajopelien, vetaytya avoimelta kadulta vieressa olevaan pensaikkoon ennenkuin kaksi ranskalaista lentokonetta, jotka äkkiä olivat ne havainneet, olivat heittäneet niiden niskaan muutamia pommeja? Muutamissa tilaisuuksissa on todellakin parasta olla varovainen. Voisin luetella tusinoittain tämänkaltaisia esimerkkejä. Ei siis ihme, että pian oli kuin piirrettynä ruumiissamme ja hengessämme: paras turva vihollistulelta on olla näkymättömissä. Mitä hyötyä onkaan kranaatinkestävistä turvapaikoista 4 metrin paksuisine maakattoineen, kun tuolla toisella puolen vihollisen 22” tai 28" patteri tietää, missä ne sijaitsevat? Mitä on linnake nykyisin muuta kuin jättiläismagneetti, joka vetää puoleensa vihollisen tulen useita tuhansia tonneja räjähdysainetta ja terästä siksi, kunnes linnake on lopullisesti tuhottu.
On totta, etten ole varma mitä parhaimmin naamioidussa maakolossanikaan, en näkymättömässä lehtimajassani tiheässä metsikössä tai rotanloukossani, jonka olen kaivanut talon raunioihin. Vihollisen tulijyrä (vihollistykistön ampuma hiljalleen etenevä tuliseinä), sen harhaileva hakutuli, joka ei jätä mitään nurkkausta koskematta, eivät tee minun suhteeni silloinkaan mitään poikkeusta. Mutta ero on kuitenkin huomattava, jos tuo tuli riehuu 3 tai 4 lyhyttä minuuttia minun tai miehieni olopaikan edustalla, tai jos se on suunnattu insernaalisella täsmällisyydellä puolen tunnin ajan turvapaikkoihimme, etenkin jos tällöin erikoisella rakastettavaisuudella on konserttiin sisällytetty viela 15, 19, niin miksei ehkä järeampiäkin kalibereita tai jos jalkaväkihyökkäyksen aikana erikoinen patteri osottaa meille huomaavaisuuttaan.
*
Joukkojen toisistaan eroittaminen ulkonäkönsä puolesta loppui jo sodan alussa. Ainoastaan Ranska ja Belgia marssittivat joukkonsa taistelutantereille kirjavin rauhanaikaisin värein, kun sitävastoin heidän liittolaisensa ja vastustajansa olivat pukeutuneet vähemmän näkyvään khakikeltaiseen tai kenttäharmaaseen. Ero oli kuitenkin vain sodan ensi päivinä huomattavan suuri. Puolueettomalla pensselillä maalasi slanderin lieju ja Ranskan kalkki ja liitu pian ystävän ja vihollisen samalla likasuojelusvärillä. Länsirintamalla oli 1915 kaikki kenttäsinistä, kenttäharmaata, kenttäruskeata ja kenttäkeitaista. Jokainen oli vakuutettu oman värinsä etevämmyydestä. Aseet, vaatteet, tykit, ajopelit, kaikki olivat vain kenttä... Koneita käyttelevälle miehistölle oli annettu yksinkertainen, selvä toimintaohje. Kirves olalle ja lähimpään metsään, mistä tuoduilla pienillä puilla ja oksilla peitettiin tykit, patterit, kolonnat, varastot j.n.e. Sitä, että näiden lehvät lakastuivat jo muutaman viikon kuluttua ja että yhdessä yössä saattoi hyvinhoidetun vihreän pellon keskelle nousta neljä säännöllistä pientä lehdikköä, mitkä kaikki kuuluivat yhteen patteriin, sitä ei silloin vielä tultu ajatelleeksi. Vasta sitten, kun oli enemmän tykkejä ja vähemmän sotilaita, kun oli oltu tarpeeksi kauan tykistötulen kiduttavassa insernossa, josta ehkä olisi voitu päästä, vasta sitten kun tarpeeksi paljon korvaamatonta verta ja ihmishenkiä oh menetetty, silloin vasta kiinnitettiin näihin seikkoihin erikoista huomiota.
Nyt ei kaivettu ainoatakaan juoksuhautaa, maanalaista turvapaikkaa, patteriasemaa tai ammusvarastoa ilman, ettei koko työtä olisi viimeisinä aamutunteina ennen pimeän loppua peitetty huolellisesti verkoilla tai maalla, joka oli tarkalleen samannäköistä kuin ympäristökin. Nyt eivät enää mitkään suljetut pataljoonat marssineet suojattomia teitä ja katuja pitkin, joihin jo kauan sitten oli suunnattu neljä tai kahdeksan himokasta tykkiä, jotka vain odottivat hetkeä syytääkseen kuolemaa ja hävitystä noitten eteenpäin marssivien pahaa aavistamattomien joukkojen keskelle. Nyt eivät mitkään patterit rientäneet urhokkaan komeasti yli avointen kenttien, sillä vaaniva tykistölentäjä voi pienen raketin, savumerkin tai sähkökipinöiden avulla saada pian parin vihollispatterin tulen keskeyttämään sen loistavan kulun, vaan ne etenivät varovaisesti, peitetysti. Jalkaväki, olipa se sitten etulinjoilla tai reservissä, turvautui lapioihinsa ja telttakankaihinsa, silloin kun se ei ollut juuri marssimassa.
Yhä luonnollisemmaksi, erottamattomammaksi ja pettävämmäksi muodostui peittämisen taito tuhoaseiden pikainen kehittyminen kiihotti sitä. Se kuului osana sotilassivistykseen, sitä ryhdyttiin tieteellisesti tutkimaan ja tänä hetkenä se muodostaa jo pienen erikoistieteen, jota kutsutaan camouflageksi, naamioimiseksi, t.s. Se on tiede, jonka avulla voi maastossa tehdä itsensä huomaamattomaksi. Apukeinoista, joita tällöin käytetään, on kaksi uutuutensa puolesta tullut huomattavaksi. Ensimäinen näistä on naamioiminen verkoin ja peittein. Verkot ovat suurin silmukoin varustettuja, niihin kiinnitetään kirjavia juovia, sammalta, oksia y.m., niin että ne muistuttavat ulkonäöltään mahdollisimman paljon ympäröivää seutua. Niillä peitetään sitten salattavat esineet: maanalaisten asumusten aukot, ammus- ja tarveainevarastot, patteriasemat, vieläpä kokonaiset vaunukentät ja kasarmit. Myöskin tärkeät liikennelinjat tulialueella peitetään täten, ei linjojen suojelemiseksi, vaan estääkseen vihollista havaitsemasta siellä tapahtuvaa liikettä. Tällöin asetetaan verkot ja peitetään usein pystysuoraan sivuttain tai suoraan yli kulkuväylien kulissien tavoin.
Toisena apukeinona käytetään salattavien esineiden maalaamista kirjavin värein ja tämä on herättänyt vieläkin enemmän huomiota. Jo muutamien sotaviikkojen kuluttua havaittiin, ettei sotaesineiden varsinainen väri niinkään paljon herättänyt huomiota, kuin niiden pahin ilmiantaja, liikunto, ja senjälkeen niiden muoto. Ei parhainkaan yksivärinen suojelusväri voinut estää, ettei valon ja varjon vaikutuksesta esineen muoto esim. tykin esiintynyt aivan selväpiirteisenä. Nykyisen suojelusvärityksen tehtävänä onkin (suojelusvärityksen, jonka värit ja käyttötapa antavat ensinnä aiheen luulla, että niitä on pikemminkin käytellyt jokin hullu kuin hyvinkoulutettu, tieteellisesti asiaan perehtynyt henkilö) juuri etusijassa piirteiden ja ääriviivojen "katkaiseminen". Kaikki suuremmat pinnat varustetaan tällöin juovilla, kaikki pitkät esineet (tykin putket j.n.e.) pienillä värikkäillä läiskillä. Osat, jotka tavallisuudessa ovat tummia, maalataan kirkkain värein ja päinvastoin. Värien valinnan määrää seutu: joko kirkas, synkkä tai niiden väliltä kaksi tai kolme väriä. Jos väritykseen käytetään liian heikkoja värejä, niin sulavat värit jo pienenkin etäisyyden päästä harmaaksi massaksi, ja esineen petol- Hset ääriviivat, jotka juuri oli salattavat, piirtyvät jäi leen selvinä esiin.
Tässä on siis avain nykyiseen kummalliseen ”sotaväritykseen”, josta itse luontokin esittää niin monta erinomaista esimerkkiä (kyykäärme, ahven, kuikka, ilves ja monta muuta, mutta ennen kaikkea myrmecophaga juhata, muurahaiskarhu). Kehitys sodan aikana kulki luonnollisesti epävarmasti, hapuillen ja etsiskellen eteenpäin. Kokeiltiin varovaisesti pienin väripinnoin, kirjavin pistein ja kapein viivoin. Vielä viimeisenä sotavuotena, kun naamioiminen ja väritys olivat vallan yleisiä, kun konekivääri väritettiin yhtä hyvin kuin tykkikin, rautatievaunu samoin kuin höyrylaivakin, lentokoneet, kasarmit j.n.e. Mitä kirjavimmin värein, saattoi mitä parhaimmin onnistuneen värityksen rinnalla tavata jotain vasta aivan alkuasteella olevaa, epäröivää ja hapuilevaa. Ei myöskään puuttunut tapauksia, joissa mentiin liiallisuuksiin, etenkin kunnostautuivat Yhdysvallat tässä suhteessa. Hevosten värittäminen on sotilaallisesti katsoen leikkiä, muutoin eläinrääkkäystä. Ja miksi rautatievaunut väritettiin, sitä en vielä tänäänkään käsitä.
Camouflage vaatii hyvää havaintokykyä ja ajattelua. Teräskypäri ei ole niinkään arka muotonsa kuin loisteensa puolesta. Jollei sitä onnistuta verustamaan himmeällä värillä, mikä ei heijasta valonsäteitä, niin on varmasti kangaspäällinen paljon parempi kuin muuten parhaimmatkaan värit. Tuskin mikään muu sotatieteen haara lähentelee niin suuressa määrin markkinamaisuutta ja kuitenkin todellisuudessa vaatii niin tavatonta koulutusta kuin camouflage.
Kuten jo edellä on mainittu, ovat suojelusvärit ja -verkot vain vähäinen osa siitä, mikä sisältyy sanaan camouflage. Tulemme myöhemmin lehdessämme antamaan muutamia esimerkkejä muilta aloilta.
Ei kuitenkaan koskaan saa unhoittaa, että naamioiminen on vain apukeino, eikä tarkotusperä. Sotilas ei ole taistelutantereella vain sitä varten, että hän piilottuisi, vaan taistellakseen, käyttääkseen taistelukoneita tai tehdäkseen muuta työtä. Toiselta puolen on muistettava ja etenkin on johtajien otettava se huomioon että taitavalla naamioimisella voidaan suuressa määrin säästää joukkojen verta ja hermovoimaa, voidaanpa ne toisinaan pelastaakin varmasta häviöstä.
24.11.16
Highland rice-indigo
American Farmer, 5.12.1828
Buckingham county, Va., Aug. 18, 1828.
Mr. Skinner, Sir, - Permit me to inquire, through the columns of your inestimable "American Farmer," whether there is any kind of grain cultivated in the United States under the denomination of "Highland Rice?" And if so, whether it is the same, or a different species from the Quinar, presented to you by F. S. Cooke, Esq., of Baltimore, in March last - where it can be obtained, and the proper process of cultivating it?
I also wish to make some inquiry relative to the Red or Turkey Indigo: Whether cotton can really be dyed red with it, and if so, what is the process?
About five-and-twenty years ago, a gentleman who had moved from this county and settled in Georgia a few years before, returned into the neighbourhood of his former residence, and brought with him some of the rice and indigo seed above mentioned, and said that cotton was dyed red with the indigo, but he had neglected to obtain a recipe bow to use it.
A few days ago I ascertained that the indigo was still growing within a few miles of me, and went to see it. I found it a large umbelliferous plant, much larger and coarser than our common indigo, and having a yellow blossom. The old lady in whose gardea it was, said she had heard that the red or Turkey cotton was dyed with it, but that she was ignorant of the process; that, in trying experiments with it, she had succeeded in producing a yellow, but could not obtain a red colour.
Your most obed't.
L. BOLLING.
Buckingham county, Va., Aug. 18, 1828.
Mr. Skinner, Sir, - Permit me to inquire, through the columns of your inestimable "American Farmer," whether there is any kind of grain cultivated in the United States under the denomination of "Highland Rice?" And if so, whether it is the same, or a different species from the Quinar, presented to you by F. S. Cooke, Esq., of Baltimore, in March last - where it can be obtained, and the proper process of cultivating it?
I also wish to make some inquiry relative to the Red or Turkey Indigo: Whether cotton can really be dyed red with it, and if so, what is the process?
About five-and-twenty years ago, a gentleman who had moved from this county and settled in Georgia a few years before, returned into the neighbourhood of his former residence, and brought with him some of the rice and indigo seed above mentioned, and said that cotton was dyed red with the indigo, but he had neglected to obtain a recipe bow to use it.
A few days ago I ascertained that the indigo was still growing within a few miles of me, and went to see it. I found it a large umbelliferous plant, much larger and coarser than our common indigo, and having a yellow blossom. The old lady in whose gardea it was, said she had heard that the red or Turkey cotton was dyed with it, but that she was ignorant of the process; that, in trying experiments with it, she had succeeded in producing a yellow, but could not obtain a red colour.
Your most obed't.
L. BOLLING.
23.11.16
Remedy for the bite of snakes.
American Farmer, 23.5.1828
Department of War,
Office Indian Affairs, l0th May, 1828.
To J. S. Skinner, Esq.
Dear Sir, - I inclose herewith, for publication in the American Farmer, a copy of a letter from Mr. David Jones, of Wellsburg, in which he names the wild indigo, (Podalyria tinctoria,) as a specific against the effects of bites of snakes, stating the manner of applying it. Every body knows the wild indigo, it being so frequently resorted to, to protect horses from the bites of flies, by being gathered and put about their heads and necks.
Very truly yours,
THO. L. McKENNEY.
-
Wellsburg, April 20, 1828.
To Thomas L. McKenvet, Esq.
Sir, - In looking over a New York paper, a few days ago, I saw an order said to have been issued, by directions of the War Department, from your office, inquiring of the different Indian agents, to know what remedies were used by the Indians, for the bites of mad-dogs and snakes. My acquaintance, from eight to twelve years, with the manners and customs of the Indians, has given me an opportunity of becoming acquainted with many cures used by them, which enables me to answer your inquiries in part. Two cases of snake-bites same under my own inspection. The most quiek and safe remedy used by the Indians, is as follows: Take the wild indigo, bruise it and put it on the bite; then follow it with a strong decoction made of the same plant; continue to keep the wound well saturated with the decoction, and in a short time it will extract all the poison. I have found the indigo on many of the tributary streams of the Ohio, and it is to be found in most countries that are inhabited by the rattle and copper snakes.
With great esteem,
I am, sir, yours, &c.
DAVID JONES.
Department of War,
Office Indian Affairs, l0th May, 1828.
To J. S. Skinner, Esq.
Dear Sir, - I inclose herewith, for publication in the American Farmer, a copy of a letter from Mr. David Jones, of Wellsburg, in which he names the wild indigo, (Podalyria tinctoria,) as a specific against the effects of bites of snakes, stating the manner of applying it. Every body knows the wild indigo, it being so frequently resorted to, to protect horses from the bites of flies, by being gathered and put about their heads and necks.
Very truly yours,
THO. L. McKENNEY.
-
Wellsburg, April 20, 1828.
To Thomas L. McKenvet, Esq.
Sir, - In looking over a New York paper, a few days ago, I saw an order said to have been issued, by directions of the War Department, from your office, inquiring of the different Indian agents, to know what remedies were used by the Indians, for the bites of mad-dogs and snakes. My acquaintance, from eight to twelve years, with the manners and customs of the Indians, has given me an opportunity of becoming acquainted with many cures used by them, which enables me to answer your inquiries in part. Two cases of snake-bites same under my own inspection. The most quiek and safe remedy used by the Indians, is as follows: Take the wild indigo, bruise it and put it on the bite; then follow it with a strong decoction made of the same plant; continue to keep the wound well saturated with the decoction, and in a short time it will extract all the poison. I have found the indigo on many of the tributary streams of the Ohio, and it is to be found in most countries that are inhabited by the rattle and copper snakes.
With great esteem,
I am, sir, yours, &c.
DAVID JONES.
22.11.16
Recipes for Making Coloured Inks.
American Farmer, 26.12.1828.
Red Ink
The mode of preparing this ink, recommended by M. de Ribaucourt: infuse four ounces of ground Brazil wood in vinegar for three days; then heat it to the boiling point, and keep it for an hour at that temperature, after which, it must be filtrated. Whilst hot, dissolve in it one-third of an ounce of gum arabic, and the same quantity of sugar, and of alum; allow it to cool, and put it into well stopped bottles.
An ink of a still more beautiful shade may ba made with a decoction of cochineal, to which ammonia is to be added.
The most beautiful of all the red inks, is made by a solution of carmine in liquid ammonia, allowing the excess of the alkali to evaporate, and adding a small portion of colourless gum arabic.
Green Ink.
Klaprotti's recipe for making a beautiful green ink, is the following: boil two parts of verdigris, and one of cream of tartar, in eight parts of water, until it is reduced to one-half. Strain it through a cloth, allow it to cool, and then bottle it.
Yellow Ink.
In a quart of boiling water, dissolve an ounce of alum; add half a pound of French berries, (Graines d'Avignon;) keep the mixture at the boiling point for an hour, strain the liquid, and dissolve in it a little more than a quarter of an ounce of gum arabic.
By following the same process, but substituting a much smaller quantity of saffron for the French berries, a much more beautiful yellow will be obtained. A still more durable colour may be made from gamboge, by merely dissolving it in water, until it is of the shade required.
By means of concentrated solutions of the greater number of colouring substances, inks of every shade may be prepared; a portion of gum is, in general, required, to suspend the colouring matter, and sometimes, corrosive sublimate must be added, to prevent mouldiness.
Red Ink
The mode of preparing this ink, recommended by M. de Ribaucourt: infuse four ounces of ground Brazil wood in vinegar for three days; then heat it to the boiling point, and keep it for an hour at that temperature, after which, it must be filtrated. Whilst hot, dissolve in it one-third of an ounce of gum arabic, and the same quantity of sugar, and of alum; allow it to cool, and put it into well stopped bottles.
An ink of a still more beautiful shade may ba made with a decoction of cochineal, to which ammonia is to be added.
The most beautiful of all the red inks, is made by a solution of carmine in liquid ammonia, allowing the excess of the alkali to evaporate, and adding a small portion of colourless gum arabic.
Green Ink.
Klaprotti's recipe for making a beautiful green ink, is the following: boil two parts of verdigris, and one of cream of tartar, in eight parts of water, until it is reduced to one-half. Strain it through a cloth, allow it to cool, and then bottle it.
Yellow Ink.
In a quart of boiling water, dissolve an ounce of alum; add half a pound of French berries, (Graines d'Avignon;) keep the mixture at the boiling point for an hour, strain the liquid, and dissolve in it a little more than a quarter of an ounce of gum arabic.
By following the same process, but substituting a much smaller quantity of saffron for the French berries, a much more beautiful yellow will be obtained. A still more durable colour may be made from gamboge, by merely dissolving it in water, until it is of the shade required.
By means of concentrated solutions of the greater number of colouring substances, inks of every shade may be prepared; a portion of gum is, in general, required, to suspend the colouring matter, and sometimes, corrosive sublimate must be added, to prevent mouldiness.
21.11.16
Cochineal Insect introduces into Europe.
American Farmer, 10.10.1828.
It appears that an experiment lately tried in Spain, and some parts of the Mediterranean, to in troduce the cochineal insect, promises to be attended with the desired result in some of the provinces of Spain, at Gibraltar, and at Malta. The Indian fig is of a natural growth under the climate of those countries, and being the only food of the insect in question, originally suggested the idea of its importation. It has been ascertained, after the indefatigable researches of some celebrated naturalists, that the powers of fecundity of the female cochineal insect are so great as to enable it to give birth, in the very short course of its natural existence, to no less a number than 632,727. Its transportation into Europe may, in a short time be come a source of important trade to those parts where circumstances of climate and food will enable it to thrive.
It appears that an experiment lately tried in Spain, and some parts of the Mediterranean, to in troduce the cochineal insect, promises to be attended with the desired result in some of the provinces of Spain, at Gibraltar, and at Malta. The Indian fig is of a natural growth under the climate of those countries, and being the only food of the insect in question, originally suggested the idea of its importation. It has been ascertained, after the indefatigable researches of some celebrated naturalists, that the powers of fecundity of the female cochineal insect are so great as to enable it to give birth, in the very short course of its natural existence, to no less a number than 632,727. Its transportation into Europe may, in a short time be come a source of important trade to those parts where circumstances of climate and food will enable it to thrive.
20.11.16
Woad - Weld.
American Farmer, 2.1.1829
J. S. Skinner, Esq.
New York, Dec. 21, 1828.
Sir, - Yours of the 7th inst. was duly received. In answer to the communication enclosed, I have to observe, that woad and weld are two different plants. Woad is the Isatis used for blue dyeing, and weld is the Reseda Luteola used for dyeing yellow. Raising of woad in the south will not answer, it having been cultivated in the middle states till competition has brought it below the expense of cultivation. Weld is a new article, recently in troduced, and might answer, if the consumers were within a reasonable distance; but the article is so light and bulky that it will not pay for much land transportation, nor even for distant water transit. Some teazles have been raised in South Carolina, but they grow so large and rank as to be of little value.
Should your correspondent be desirous of trying the weld, we can furnish him with seed. The cost is two dollars a pound, and one half pound will be sufficient for one sixth of an acre. We can also furnish him with instructions for planting, &c. the article is raised in the south of France, and transported to England.
I would recommend to our southern planters the cultivation of madder, and of Sicily sumach, (Rhus coriarius) as articles of more general consumption than the above, and as better suited to a southern climate.
Yours, truly,
WM. PARTRIDGE
J. S. Skinner, Esq.
New York, Dec. 21, 1828.
Sir, - Yours of the 7th inst. was duly received. In answer to the communication enclosed, I have to observe, that woad and weld are two different plants. Woad is the Isatis used for blue dyeing, and weld is the Reseda Luteola used for dyeing yellow. Raising of woad in the south will not answer, it having been cultivated in the middle states till competition has brought it below the expense of cultivation. Weld is a new article, recently in troduced, and might answer, if the consumers were within a reasonable distance; but the article is so light and bulky that it will not pay for much land transportation, nor even for distant water transit. Some teazles have been raised in South Carolina, but they grow so large and rank as to be of little value.
Should your correspondent be desirous of trying the weld, we can furnish him with seed. The cost is two dollars a pound, and one half pound will be sufficient for one sixth of an acre. We can also furnish him with instructions for planting, &c. the article is raised in the south of France, and transported to England.
I would recommend to our southern planters the cultivation of madder, and of Sicily sumach, (Rhus coriarius) as articles of more general consumption than the above, and as better suited to a southern climate.
Yours, truly,
WM. PARTRIDGE
19.11.16
Indigo.
American Farmer, 10.9.1828.
On the method of Manufacturing Indigo on the coast of Coromandel, in India, and Senegal, under the auspices of the French government, by George M. Gibbes, of Combahee, S. C. - addressed to William Washington, Esq, and by him politely handed to us for publication.
Combahee, Dec. 3, 1827.
* See Bancroft on Permanent Dyes, and Mungo Park's Mission to Africa, page 143, for another mode practised in that country.Sir, - The importance of multiplying the staple productions of the Southern states, induces me to suggest to the consideration of the Agricultural Society of South Carolina, the expediency of encouraging experiments in the cultivation of indigo; and particularly of manufacturing it from the dry leaves, as practised on the coast of Coromandel, in India; and recently, in Senegal, under the immediate auspices of the French government - instead of from the green weed, as was formerly done in this state. According to information obtained from a highly respectable proprietor, and extensive practical manufacturer, during a period of fourteen years in the former country, (and now resident in this,) almost the whole of the indigo made in Coromandel, is manufactured from the leaves of the plant only, after they have been dried, packed, and transported to the factories by the farmers, and, in most instances, from distant parts of the country. After the plant is cut, it is spread out to dry in the sun, on a space of ground left for the purpose, for about six or eight hours, when it is threshed or shaken in the hand to break off the leaves, which crumble easily: the stems are then raked off as useless, the impression being, from various experiments, that this part of the plant contains little or none of the colouring matter, and the leaves are packed away in the house, as tight as possible, so as to preserve them from the air, until the harvest is completed and the farmer is at leisure either to manufacture himself, or to transport them to the regular factories. If the season is wet, drying the house is resorted to; and when the leaves crumble in the hand, it is considered indication of their being sufficiently cured. The advantages of thus separating the two operations of harvest and manufacture (which otherwise go together, from the necessity of steeping the green plants as soon as cut), the saving of transportation of the heaviest portion of the plant from the field to the vats, as well as the postponement of the manufacturing process, until the healthy season, when the superintendence of the proprietor may be obtained, will be at once apparent to the practical agriculturist. And if the cultivation only could be confined to the plantation, and the manufacture performed at regular factories where the business could be conducted on a larger scale, there is little doubt but that (as in almost all other operations of the kind) superiority in the quality of the article made and economy in the use of the raw material, would be the consequence. The great objections of our old planters to the pursuit viz: the uncertainty or the result, and disagreeableness, if not unhealthfulness of the fermenting process would be removed, and the simplicity of the whole business promoted. When a view to this end, a distinguished professional [-] of New York, Mr. William Partridge, has offered to receive, to the amount of several tons, [-] the next season, and cured according to the foregoing directions; and will return to the [-] two-thirds of any profits which may result from the experiments made. This gentleman has obtained a Patent for dyeing from the leaf, either dried, or, in its fermented state, according to the African mode of preparing it, which is by simply moistening and grinding the dry leaves sufficiently to produce fermentation and adhesion, so as to permit of its being rolled into balls, and packed for market;* and which is the same process generally pursued in preparing woad in England, and in which state the woad imported into this country is received. As it is believed that no experiments in preparing indigo for market by this latter mode have been made public, it is presumed to be equally entitled to trial as any other, especially when it is considered that the African blue dyes are superior to those obtained from the best Madras indigo.
The great superiority in the quality of indigo now made, over that which was formerly produced either in India or America, its enhancement in value, and the constantly increasing demand, would seem sufficiently important considerations to induce a partial return to its cultivation, in the present depressed state of the cotton market, independent of the benefit which may be expected to the land itself by a change of crop. It is true, that considerable doubt has been entertained whether the superiority of the indigo now made, is owing to greater skill, or to the more favourable soil and climate of India.
There are two circumstances which appear calculated to promote a belief, that the former is the chief, if not the only cause; viz. that previous to 1779, the year in which the East India Company commenced making indigo in India, the article there was inferior to that made in the United States, from whence Great Britain received her principal supplies; and also, that of what is now made in Carolina, a portion is of the very first quality, as admitted by the dyers in the Northern states, who are in the habit of using, annually, the small quantity which is still produced in our upper districts.
The difficulty of obtaining accurate information as to the most improved modes of preparing indigo, now practised in other parts of the world, renders it impossible to institute a comparison with that which was customary in Carolina, before it was abandoned as a staple, from which the extent of those improvements may be estimated. But it is reasonable to conclude, that under the patronage of the British government, and with the aid of chemistry, they must have been considerable. As far as I have been able to learn from the various sources consulted, they consist chiefly in the period of cutting the plant, as a subject of the very first importance; and next, in the steeping and beating process - size of the vats, &c. It is universally admitted, however, that perfection in the art of indigo making, is more a matter of experience than of science, and that no particular rules will prevail at all times, even in the same country; that nothing, indeed, short of long practice and minute attention, can possibly lead to successful results.
As regards the proper time of cutting the plant, there is much variety of opinion. In Coromandel, it is not considered lit to cut, until the plant is in full blossom, and just before seeding; whilst, in India, generally, (as stated in Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture,) the plants are not allowed to come to flower, as the leaf in that case becomes dry and hard, and the indigo produced is of less value." - The improvement lately introduced into France by M. Morina, an Italian, in obtaining indigo from the woad plant, by cutting the leaves when very green, instead of when ripe, as formerly, may, perhaps, add more strength to the latter opinion, from the similarity of the two plants. In a memoir on indigo, lately received from a cultivator in the neighbourhood of Caraccas, it is observed, that "the weed is cut about three and a half months after planting; and the most certain method of knowing the period of its maturity, is, by squeezing the young shoots in the hand; if it cakes, it is not ripe; but if it pulverizes, it is then fit to cut."
When the green weed is to be steeped, from the necessity of doing so the same day on which it is cut, it is evidently impossible to harvest the whole crop at the precise period of its perfection, as this operation must be dependent on the progress of the manufacture; which circumstance, with the difficulty of obtaining skill in the manufacture, as well as the scarcity of clear and soft water in the low country, which is so indispensable in making good indigo, afford additional reasons for confining the planter to its cultivation only, should the plan proposed be found practicable.
The improvements which are stated to have taken place in the large factories in India, are chiefly in the attention to cleanliness, by which all extraneous matter is excluded, and the expedition with which the beating process is performed, by means of machinery, and on which the quality of the indigo is said so much to depend: for, in the process of oxigizing, by which it is converted from the green to the blue state, the rapidity with which it is exposed to the atmosphere, is considered by chemists as allimportant to the perfect separation which should take place of the colouring matter from the salts and extraneous liquor: and to the slow mode of doing which, as formerly practised in Carolina, as well as to the too great quantities or lime used to facilitate the precipitation or the feculæ, has been, in a great measure, ascribed to the inferiority of the article made. In India, lime-water only is used, and that sparingly; and, in testing the perfection of this stage, it is observed that the most certain indication, next to that of the apparent separation of the dregs, is the colour of the water, which should be that or brandy; and if either green or black, that there has been a defect, and the indigo will not be good. If my information is correct, that it was customary, formerly, in this country, to continue the beating after the precipitation was observed to have taken place, it may be considered as another great defect, as it is now well understood, that in this event a reversion of the particles, and consequent formation ensues, which completely spoils the colour.
Similar expedition is attended to in the previous steeping of the weed, as twenty minutes only is pre scribed as proper to be allowed for filling the vats. It is in this branch or the business, that the greatest advantage results from the use or the dry leaves; for, in steeping them, only one or two hours is requisite to extract the colouring matter, and no fermentation takes place: whereas, in fermenting the green weed, twelve hours or more is required. Be sides which, there is always some uncertainty in the success of the latter process - for, if the fermentation is too great, the quantity is increased, but the quality certainly injured.
The dimensions of the vats (which can be furnished, if desired,) are proportioned to each other, and greater success is found to exist, when the business is conducted on a large, than on a small scale.
In the cultivation of the plant, there does not appear any material difference in the different countries where it grows, other than such as local circumstances render necessary - and the probability is, that the mode best suited to our soil is that which was practised.
In the State of Salvador, (the crop of which, for the year 1825, was valued at $2,400,000,) a rich, moist soil is required - the seed is sown three or four inches deep, and the plant flowers in two months. In Coromandel, a cool soil is preferred, by which is meant, that where water is found at a short distance below the surface; and the height which the plant attains, is a strong indication or the quantity or colouring matter to be expected - it being observed, that four feet was the best height, and that when it reached eight feet, the quantity and quality of indigo made were both deficient. The quantity of indigo made to the acre is not easily ascertained. In the West Indies, where it is cut three or four times, the yield has been as high as five hundred pounds - and, in some of the interior provinces of Hindostan, when they have as many as nine cuttings, it is said to be still greater.
When it is considered that the estimated value of the indigo annually consumed in the United States, is upwards of §4,000,000, and that the in creasing demand is likely to keep pace with the in crease of manufactures generally; that a protecting duty of fifteen cents a pound already exists, and that complete security from foreign competition must ensue, should the contemplated commercial policy of the country go into effect, the expectation may not be chimerical, that this valuable plant, which is indigenous to the soil of Carolina, will once more become a source of wealth and prosperity to the state.
With great respect, I am, sir,
Your obed't serv't,
GEORGE M. GIBBES.
P. S. - I send you a few roots of the madder, which, as well as the wild plant, and the Sicily sumach, are articles of increasing consumption in the manufactories of the north, and may be well worth trial in this climate. Several very profitable experiments have been made with them recently at the north; and the wild sumach has been cultivated to some extent, although the quality in that climate is so inferior as to command only one half the price of that which is imported from the more mild regions of Portugal and Sicily.
On the method of Manufacturing Indigo on the coast of Coromandel, in India, and Senegal, under the auspices of the French government, by George M. Gibbes, of Combahee, S. C. - addressed to William Washington, Esq, and by him politely handed to us for publication.
Combahee, Dec. 3, 1827.
* See Bancroft on Permanent Dyes, and Mungo Park's Mission to Africa, page 143, for another mode practised in that country.Sir, - The importance of multiplying the staple productions of the Southern states, induces me to suggest to the consideration of the Agricultural Society of South Carolina, the expediency of encouraging experiments in the cultivation of indigo; and particularly of manufacturing it from the dry leaves, as practised on the coast of Coromandel, in India; and recently, in Senegal, under the immediate auspices of the French government - instead of from the green weed, as was formerly done in this state. According to information obtained from a highly respectable proprietor, and extensive practical manufacturer, during a period of fourteen years in the former country, (and now resident in this,) almost the whole of the indigo made in Coromandel, is manufactured from the leaves of the plant only, after they have been dried, packed, and transported to the factories by the farmers, and, in most instances, from distant parts of the country. After the plant is cut, it is spread out to dry in the sun, on a space of ground left for the purpose, for about six or eight hours, when it is threshed or shaken in the hand to break off the leaves, which crumble easily: the stems are then raked off as useless, the impression being, from various experiments, that this part of the plant contains little or none of the colouring matter, and the leaves are packed away in the house, as tight as possible, so as to preserve them from the air, until the harvest is completed and the farmer is at leisure either to manufacture himself, or to transport them to the regular factories. If the season is wet, drying the house is resorted to; and when the leaves crumble in the hand, it is considered indication of their being sufficiently cured. The advantages of thus separating the two operations of harvest and manufacture (which otherwise go together, from the necessity of steeping the green plants as soon as cut), the saving of transportation of the heaviest portion of the plant from the field to the vats, as well as the postponement of the manufacturing process, until the healthy season, when the superintendence of the proprietor may be obtained, will be at once apparent to the practical agriculturist. And if the cultivation only could be confined to the plantation, and the manufacture performed at regular factories where the business could be conducted on a larger scale, there is little doubt but that (as in almost all other operations of the kind) superiority in the quality of the article made and economy in the use of the raw material, would be the consequence. The great objections of our old planters to the pursuit viz: the uncertainty or the result, and disagreeableness, if not unhealthfulness of the fermenting process would be removed, and the simplicity of the whole business promoted. When a view to this end, a distinguished professional [-] of New York, Mr. William Partridge, has offered to receive, to the amount of several tons, [-] the next season, and cured according to the foregoing directions; and will return to the [-] two-thirds of any profits which may result from the experiments made. This gentleman has obtained a Patent for dyeing from the leaf, either dried, or, in its fermented state, according to the African mode of preparing it, which is by simply moistening and grinding the dry leaves sufficiently to produce fermentation and adhesion, so as to permit of its being rolled into balls, and packed for market;* and which is the same process generally pursued in preparing woad in England, and in which state the woad imported into this country is received. As it is believed that no experiments in preparing indigo for market by this latter mode have been made public, it is presumed to be equally entitled to trial as any other, especially when it is considered that the African blue dyes are superior to those obtained from the best Madras indigo.
The great superiority in the quality of indigo now made, over that which was formerly produced either in India or America, its enhancement in value, and the constantly increasing demand, would seem sufficiently important considerations to induce a partial return to its cultivation, in the present depressed state of the cotton market, independent of the benefit which may be expected to the land itself by a change of crop. It is true, that considerable doubt has been entertained whether the superiority of the indigo now made, is owing to greater skill, or to the more favourable soil and climate of India.
There are two circumstances which appear calculated to promote a belief, that the former is the chief, if not the only cause; viz. that previous to 1779, the year in which the East India Company commenced making indigo in India, the article there was inferior to that made in the United States, from whence Great Britain received her principal supplies; and also, that of what is now made in Carolina, a portion is of the very first quality, as admitted by the dyers in the Northern states, who are in the habit of using, annually, the small quantity which is still produced in our upper districts.
The difficulty of obtaining accurate information as to the most improved modes of preparing indigo, now practised in other parts of the world, renders it impossible to institute a comparison with that which was customary in Carolina, before it was abandoned as a staple, from which the extent of those improvements may be estimated. But it is reasonable to conclude, that under the patronage of the British government, and with the aid of chemistry, they must have been considerable. As far as I have been able to learn from the various sources consulted, they consist chiefly in the period of cutting the plant, as a subject of the very first importance; and next, in the steeping and beating process - size of the vats, &c. It is universally admitted, however, that perfection in the art of indigo making, is more a matter of experience than of science, and that no particular rules will prevail at all times, even in the same country; that nothing, indeed, short of long practice and minute attention, can possibly lead to successful results.
As regards the proper time of cutting the plant, there is much variety of opinion. In Coromandel, it is not considered lit to cut, until the plant is in full blossom, and just before seeding; whilst, in India, generally, (as stated in Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture,) the plants are not allowed to come to flower, as the leaf in that case becomes dry and hard, and the indigo produced is of less value." - The improvement lately introduced into France by M. Morina, an Italian, in obtaining indigo from the woad plant, by cutting the leaves when very green, instead of when ripe, as formerly, may, perhaps, add more strength to the latter opinion, from the similarity of the two plants. In a memoir on indigo, lately received from a cultivator in the neighbourhood of Caraccas, it is observed, that "the weed is cut about three and a half months after planting; and the most certain method of knowing the period of its maturity, is, by squeezing the young shoots in the hand; if it cakes, it is not ripe; but if it pulverizes, it is then fit to cut."
When the green weed is to be steeped, from the necessity of doing so the same day on which it is cut, it is evidently impossible to harvest the whole crop at the precise period of its perfection, as this operation must be dependent on the progress of the manufacture; which circumstance, with the difficulty of obtaining skill in the manufacture, as well as the scarcity of clear and soft water in the low country, which is so indispensable in making good indigo, afford additional reasons for confining the planter to its cultivation only, should the plan proposed be found practicable.
The improvements which are stated to have taken place in the large factories in India, are chiefly in the attention to cleanliness, by which all extraneous matter is excluded, and the expedition with which the beating process is performed, by means of machinery, and on which the quality of the indigo is said so much to depend: for, in the process of oxigizing, by which it is converted from the green to the blue state, the rapidity with which it is exposed to the atmosphere, is considered by chemists as allimportant to the perfect separation which should take place of the colouring matter from the salts and extraneous liquor: and to the slow mode of doing which, as formerly practised in Carolina, as well as to the too great quantities or lime used to facilitate the precipitation or the feculæ, has been, in a great measure, ascribed to the inferiority of the article made. In India, lime-water only is used, and that sparingly; and, in testing the perfection of this stage, it is observed that the most certain indication, next to that of the apparent separation of the dregs, is the colour of the water, which should be that or brandy; and if either green or black, that there has been a defect, and the indigo will not be good. If my information is correct, that it was customary, formerly, in this country, to continue the beating after the precipitation was observed to have taken place, it may be considered as another great defect, as it is now well understood, that in this event a reversion of the particles, and consequent formation ensues, which completely spoils the colour.
Similar expedition is attended to in the previous steeping of the weed, as twenty minutes only is pre scribed as proper to be allowed for filling the vats. It is in this branch or the business, that the greatest advantage results from the use or the dry leaves; for, in steeping them, only one or two hours is requisite to extract the colouring matter, and no fermentation takes place: whereas, in fermenting the green weed, twelve hours or more is required. Be sides which, there is always some uncertainty in the success of the latter process - for, if the fermentation is too great, the quantity is increased, but the quality certainly injured.
The dimensions of the vats (which can be furnished, if desired,) are proportioned to each other, and greater success is found to exist, when the business is conducted on a large, than on a small scale.
In the cultivation of the plant, there does not appear any material difference in the different countries where it grows, other than such as local circumstances render necessary - and the probability is, that the mode best suited to our soil is that which was practised.
In the State of Salvador, (the crop of which, for the year 1825, was valued at $2,400,000,) a rich, moist soil is required - the seed is sown three or four inches deep, and the plant flowers in two months. In Coromandel, a cool soil is preferred, by which is meant, that where water is found at a short distance below the surface; and the height which the plant attains, is a strong indication or the quantity or colouring matter to be expected - it being observed, that four feet was the best height, and that when it reached eight feet, the quantity and quality of indigo made were both deficient. The quantity of indigo made to the acre is not easily ascertained. In the West Indies, where it is cut three or four times, the yield has been as high as five hundred pounds - and, in some of the interior provinces of Hindostan, when they have as many as nine cuttings, it is said to be still greater.
When it is considered that the estimated value of the indigo annually consumed in the United States, is upwards of §4,000,000, and that the in creasing demand is likely to keep pace with the in crease of manufactures generally; that a protecting duty of fifteen cents a pound already exists, and that complete security from foreign competition must ensue, should the contemplated commercial policy of the country go into effect, the expectation may not be chimerical, that this valuable plant, which is indigenous to the soil of Carolina, will once more become a source of wealth and prosperity to the state.
With great respect, I am, sir,
Your obed't serv't,
GEORGE M. GIBBES.
P. S. - I send you a few roots of the madder, which, as well as the wild plant, and the Sicily sumach, are articles of increasing consumption in the manufactories of the north, and may be well worth trial in this climate. Several very profitable experiments have been made with them recently at the north; and the wild sumach has been cultivated to some extent, although the quality in that climate is so inferior as to command only one half the price of that which is imported from the more mild regions of Portugal and Sicily.
18.11.16
Madder.
American Farmer 18.4.1828
(From the American Daily Advertiser.)
Belmont, March 21, 1828.
Mr. Poulson,
Please to publish the letter I herewith transmit for public benefit. The writer merits and will re ceive the thanks of the society, for his patriotic en deavour to introduce into our country, a most valuable dye-stuff. It will be too late in the season to wait for a regular meeting of the society, in order to obtain their directions for the distribution of the roots. I have, therefore, requested the secretary, Mr. William S. Warder, by and with the advice of the vice presidents and curators, to cause the roots to be distributed to and among such applicants as in their judgment, will do justice in their cultivation.
I have long been convinced, that an entire change in the farming of those who live near, or within an extensive circuit around our city, will conduce to their essential and indispensable advantage, and to the prosperity of the city, which will become one of the first manufacturing cities in the United States, when the inland supplies of coal, iron and other native products arrive at full perfection. Dye stuffs will then be most indispensably required.
It therefore behoves our farmers and gardeners, immediately to begin the cultivation of all such articles as will be in extensive demand; none thereof will be more important than the madder. It requires time (three years,) to perfect its qualities; and it delights in deep, light or alluvial soils, either artificially so made, or naturally deep, and some what meist. Such are our meadows and vallies, every where to be found.
Although the time required for its full perfection, may seem forbidding, yet every thing must have a spirited and zealous beginning. At the end of the first year, the offsets, from the original root, will furnish ample supplies for extended cultivation, and thus large plantations may be made. Mean time the leaves are eagerly devoured by cattle, where cut and delivered to them twice per day, or according to their forwardness of growth. Leaving the heart-shoots uncut, will conduce to the health and increase of the root. If required, ample directions for its culture will be published.
Yours, truly,
RICHARD PETERS,
President Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture.
---
Providence, March 5, 1828.
To the President of the
Pennsylvania Agricultural Society:
Sir, — You will receive herewith, a hamper of madder-roots of the best quality, raised in Holland. They were purchased by me in Amsterdam, with a view of propagating them in this country, where they will thrive as well as in Europe, from whence our manufacturers derive, at present, their supply of this valuable dye-stuff. The cultivation of madder has not, to my knowledge, been attempted in the United States. Feeling assured, that by a little attention to the culture of this plant, our country may be rendered independent of foreign nations for a supply of it, should it not eventually even prove a profitable staple article of export I am induced to forward this small parcel to you for an experiment, with the conviction that under the auspices of your society, every attention will be paid to the subject, which its importance seems to demand.
I am, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
ZACHARIAH ALLEN.
(From the American Daily Advertiser.)
Belmont, March 21, 1828.
Mr. Poulson,
Please to publish the letter I herewith transmit for public benefit. The writer merits and will re ceive the thanks of the society, for his patriotic en deavour to introduce into our country, a most valuable dye-stuff. It will be too late in the season to wait for a regular meeting of the society, in order to obtain their directions for the distribution of the roots. I have, therefore, requested the secretary, Mr. William S. Warder, by and with the advice of the vice presidents and curators, to cause the roots to be distributed to and among such applicants as in their judgment, will do justice in their cultivation.
I have long been convinced, that an entire change in the farming of those who live near, or within an extensive circuit around our city, will conduce to their essential and indispensable advantage, and to the prosperity of the city, which will become one of the first manufacturing cities in the United States, when the inland supplies of coal, iron and other native products arrive at full perfection. Dye stuffs will then be most indispensably required.
It therefore behoves our farmers and gardeners, immediately to begin the cultivation of all such articles as will be in extensive demand; none thereof will be more important than the madder. It requires time (three years,) to perfect its qualities; and it delights in deep, light or alluvial soils, either artificially so made, or naturally deep, and some what meist. Such are our meadows and vallies, every where to be found.
Although the time required for its full perfection, may seem forbidding, yet every thing must have a spirited and zealous beginning. At the end of the first year, the offsets, from the original root, will furnish ample supplies for extended cultivation, and thus large plantations may be made. Mean time the leaves are eagerly devoured by cattle, where cut and delivered to them twice per day, or according to their forwardness of growth. Leaving the heart-shoots uncut, will conduce to the health and increase of the root. If required, ample directions for its culture will be published.
Yours, truly,
RICHARD PETERS,
President Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture.
---
Providence, March 5, 1828.
To the President of the
Pennsylvania Agricultural Society:
Sir, — You will receive herewith, a hamper of madder-roots of the best quality, raised in Holland. They were purchased by me in Amsterdam, with a view of propagating them in this country, where they will thrive as well as in Europe, from whence our manufacturers derive, at present, their supply of this valuable dye-stuff. The cultivation of madder has not, to my knowledge, been attempted in the United States. Feeling assured, that by a little attention to the culture of this plant, our country may be rendered independent of foreign nations for a supply of it, should it not eventually even prove a profitable staple article of export I am induced to forward this small parcel to you for an experiment, with the conviction that under the auspices of your society, every attention will be paid to the subject, which its importance seems to demand.
I am, very respectfully,
Your obedient servant,
ZACHARIAH ALLEN.
17.11.16
Cochineal. On the Cultivation of the Cochineal in the Southern States. Cultivation of Cochineal in Malta.
American Farmer 21.3.1828
On the Cultivation of the Cochineal in the Southern States.
Washington, March, 1828.
Dear Sir,
* The Editor remembers well, when a small boy at school at Queen Anne, on the Patuxent river, to have seen the prickly pear growing spontaneously and extensively in that neighbourhood.I send you an English paper, containing an article on the cultivation of the Cochineal. It is very particular, and may be highly interesting to your southern subscribers. The prickly pear is indigenous in almost every part of the United States, especially in South Carolina and Georgia, near the sea shore. I have seen it growing in abundance on James' island, in the harbour of Charleston, and have also seen on the leaves many of the insects described in the article above alluded to.* Perhaps the publication of the article may induce some of our southern planters to cultivate the prickly pear, with a view to obtaining the cochineal, and thus add a new staple to the valuable commodities already produced in our southern states.
Yours, truly,
ALEX. MACOMB.
Cultivation of Cochineal in Malta.
It is not generally known in this country, that the cochineal of Mexico is now cultivated in Europe, and that it is already in our colonies in the Mediterranean.
This valuable and interesting creature was sent from Vera Cruz, by Don Pedro Jose Larazo, in 1820; and during the long voyage, nothing material seemed to alter its condition; and, on its arrival at Cadiz, it was delivered over to the Patriotic Society of that place, in order that it should be submitted to more particular management and scientific observations.
The Society readily undertook its management, studied its economy, and went to considerable expense to extend its cultivation throughout the southern provinces of Spain; and, from the numerous generations which have been produced, the size and good quality of the insect, it may be justly con sidered a new and an important branch of commerce to the Peninsula.
The prickly pear, in the provinces of Grenada, Andalusia, Murcia and Catalonia, is now carefully cultivated for this extraordinary insect to feed upon; and it is now proved, beyond a doubt, that, by attention to the cultivation of the apuntia, the brilliancy of colour, and durability of the dye, which the cochineal insect reared in Spain offers, are equal to the finest produced in the province of Guatemala, in Mexico. The general character and propensities of this extraordinary creature are not easily observed, and require great attention. In common with all other animals, it has the distinction of sexes; but no two creatures of the same class can present more characteristic difference than the male and female of the cochineal.
It is not correct, when we are told by naturalists that these insects fly about, from leaf to leaf, and deposite their eggs. The females cannot fly; they never move after they once fasten on the leaf. — They live by suction, and adhere firmly to the plant until they are either gathered for use, or a new generation formed. They grow to the size of small lentil, or an oval shaped pea; they are convex on the outer surface, and concave towards the plant. The convex surface is beautifully marked with lines and rugged; and, when the insect is about fifteen days old, it resembles a louse in many particulars. It has three claws or legs on each side, upon which it walks slowly when once detached from its hold; it will crawl over the hand, or wander over any plane surface, but when it falls, or turns over on its back, which it is very prone to do, it is as helpless as a turtle. It has a kind of proboscis, or sting like member, extending from the mouth, which penetrates the soft leaf of the apuntia, which secures it in a most extraordinary manner in its first situation. They prefer living in society to wandering about the leaf, although it is certain destruction to thousands of them; for when they grow to a certain size, they push one another out of their origi nal situations mechanically — thus the weaker ones, or those that are deposited last, generally perish.
But this mortality can be well afforded, by the prodigious fecundity of the creature. Mr. Alzate has declared, by a geometrical calculation, that every cochineal contains six hundred and thirty-two thousand seven hundred and seventy-seven young ones. How M. Alzate was enabled to hit this exact number, I do not pretend to know; but certain it is, there is nothing in nature that possesses such powers of fecundity as the cochineal insect.
At a very early period they cover themselves with a silky coat of a milky whiteness; and although many of them, occasionally, during the period of their existence, lose this whiteness, (for they do not all do so, and it appears to me to be effected by mechanical friction of one another, from increased growth at different periods, rather than from any natural operation or change within them; and this opinion is the result of observation for many years;) yet they all retain that whiteness until they are ga thered for commercial purposes.
The male insects are few: in a society of 1000, perhaps not more than two or three males can be observed. They are furnished with long white wings, and resemble, in point of shape, a maschito or spider.
From the thirty-fifth to the forty-fifth day, a prolongation may be observed, extending from the posterior of the female; and about the same period, the males may be discovered busily impregnating the ova of the females. This process is far the most important, for if the males, or machos, are by any circumstance disturbed, impregnation is rendered incomplete. When this period is over, the males wander about the leaves in a most exhausted and miserable condition, and what is still more strange, they disappear in an instant, and no one can tell what transformation they assume.
The late Marquis of Hastings, during his residence in Malta, offered every encouragement for the introduction and cultivation of this most valuable article of commerce on the island, and although every exertion was made to procure the living in sects, they did not arrive on the island during the life-time of that most distinguished and patriotic nobleman. In January, last year, two pots of the prickly pear, with living insects of the cochineal, were put on hoard an English packet, for the Marchioness of Hastings, at Malta. Her ladyship was then at Malta, and the insects never arrived. The captain of the packet best knows what became of them. They might, indeed, have perished in that inclement season, during the voyage. True it is, they have not since been heard of.
However, not on this account was the affair neglected; an humble individual, who had exerted himself for a period of nearly two years, to preserve the insects for Malta, succeeded last August in introducing on that island three pots of the prickly pear with living insects of the finest quality of cochineal, upon them. They were held at the disposal of his Majesty's government there, for the public good of the island, and the individual who had the happiness to be the first introducer of such an important commercial article, devoted himself, without fee or reward, for three months, to their cultivation and management, and felt particularly gratified to see several generations of those insects produced before he left Malta; and he feels no hesitation in saying, as the prickly pear is indigenous on tlie island, with ordinary attention to its cultivation, and encouraged by government, it will ultimately be come a branch of lucrative commerce to that colony. Sicily, Corfu, and other islands in the Meditenanean, are also eligible for rearing this insect. In order the more effectually to secure its extension and cultivation in the island of Malta, government should offer a premium on every pound weight of cochineal which is produced on the island for the first two years, after which period its cultivation would be prosperous.
[The present price of cochineal in this market is $2.90 to (3 00 per pound—being one dollar less than the average price for several years past.]
On the Cultivation of the Cochineal in the Southern States.
Washington, March, 1828.
Dear Sir,
* The Editor remembers well, when a small boy at school at Queen Anne, on the Patuxent river, to have seen the prickly pear growing spontaneously and extensively in that neighbourhood.I send you an English paper, containing an article on the cultivation of the Cochineal. It is very particular, and may be highly interesting to your southern subscribers. The prickly pear is indigenous in almost every part of the United States, especially in South Carolina and Georgia, near the sea shore. I have seen it growing in abundance on James' island, in the harbour of Charleston, and have also seen on the leaves many of the insects described in the article above alluded to.* Perhaps the publication of the article may induce some of our southern planters to cultivate the prickly pear, with a view to obtaining the cochineal, and thus add a new staple to the valuable commodities already produced in our southern states.
Yours, truly,
ALEX. MACOMB.
Cultivation of Cochineal in Malta.
It is not generally known in this country, that the cochineal of Mexico is now cultivated in Europe, and that it is already in our colonies in the Mediterranean.
This valuable and interesting creature was sent from Vera Cruz, by Don Pedro Jose Larazo, in 1820; and during the long voyage, nothing material seemed to alter its condition; and, on its arrival at Cadiz, it was delivered over to the Patriotic Society of that place, in order that it should be submitted to more particular management and scientific observations.
The Society readily undertook its management, studied its economy, and went to considerable expense to extend its cultivation throughout the southern provinces of Spain; and, from the numerous generations which have been produced, the size and good quality of the insect, it may be justly con sidered a new and an important branch of commerce to the Peninsula.
The prickly pear, in the provinces of Grenada, Andalusia, Murcia and Catalonia, is now carefully cultivated for this extraordinary insect to feed upon; and it is now proved, beyond a doubt, that, by attention to the cultivation of the apuntia, the brilliancy of colour, and durability of the dye, which the cochineal insect reared in Spain offers, are equal to the finest produced in the province of Guatemala, in Mexico. The general character and propensities of this extraordinary creature are not easily observed, and require great attention. In common with all other animals, it has the distinction of sexes; but no two creatures of the same class can present more characteristic difference than the male and female of the cochineal.
It is not correct, when we are told by naturalists that these insects fly about, from leaf to leaf, and deposite their eggs. The females cannot fly; they never move after they once fasten on the leaf. — They live by suction, and adhere firmly to the plant until they are either gathered for use, or a new generation formed. They grow to the size of small lentil, or an oval shaped pea; they are convex on the outer surface, and concave towards the plant. The convex surface is beautifully marked with lines and rugged; and, when the insect is about fifteen days old, it resembles a louse in many particulars. It has three claws or legs on each side, upon which it walks slowly when once detached from its hold; it will crawl over the hand, or wander over any plane surface, but when it falls, or turns over on its back, which it is very prone to do, it is as helpless as a turtle. It has a kind of proboscis, or sting like member, extending from the mouth, which penetrates the soft leaf of the apuntia, which secures it in a most extraordinary manner in its first situation. They prefer living in society to wandering about the leaf, although it is certain destruction to thousands of them; for when they grow to a certain size, they push one another out of their origi nal situations mechanically — thus the weaker ones, or those that are deposited last, generally perish.
But this mortality can be well afforded, by the prodigious fecundity of the creature. Mr. Alzate has declared, by a geometrical calculation, that every cochineal contains six hundred and thirty-two thousand seven hundred and seventy-seven young ones. How M. Alzate was enabled to hit this exact number, I do not pretend to know; but certain it is, there is nothing in nature that possesses such powers of fecundity as the cochineal insect.
At a very early period they cover themselves with a silky coat of a milky whiteness; and although many of them, occasionally, during the period of their existence, lose this whiteness, (for they do not all do so, and it appears to me to be effected by mechanical friction of one another, from increased growth at different periods, rather than from any natural operation or change within them; and this opinion is the result of observation for many years;) yet they all retain that whiteness until they are ga thered for commercial purposes.
The male insects are few: in a society of 1000, perhaps not more than two or three males can be observed. They are furnished with long white wings, and resemble, in point of shape, a maschito or spider.
From the thirty-fifth to the forty-fifth day, a prolongation may be observed, extending from the posterior of the female; and about the same period, the males may be discovered busily impregnating the ova of the females. This process is far the most important, for if the males, or machos, are by any circumstance disturbed, impregnation is rendered incomplete. When this period is over, the males wander about the leaves in a most exhausted and miserable condition, and what is still more strange, they disappear in an instant, and no one can tell what transformation they assume.
The late Marquis of Hastings, during his residence in Malta, offered every encouragement for the introduction and cultivation of this most valuable article of commerce on the island, and although every exertion was made to procure the living in sects, they did not arrive on the island during the life-time of that most distinguished and patriotic nobleman. In January, last year, two pots of the prickly pear, with living insects of the cochineal, were put on hoard an English packet, for the Marchioness of Hastings, at Malta. Her ladyship was then at Malta, and the insects never arrived. The captain of the packet best knows what became of them. They might, indeed, have perished in that inclement season, during the voyage. True it is, they have not since been heard of.
However, not on this account was the affair neglected; an humble individual, who had exerted himself for a period of nearly two years, to preserve the insects for Malta, succeeded last August in introducing on that island three pots of the prickly pear with living insects of the finest quality of cochineal, upon them. They were held at the disposal of his Majesty's government there, for the public good of the island, and the individual who had the happiness to be the first introducer of such an important commercial article, devoted himself, without fee or reward, for three months, to their cultivation and management, and felt particularly gratified to see several generations of those insects produced before he left Malta; and he feels no hesitation in saying, as the prickly pear is indigenous on tlie island, with ordinary attention to its cultivation, and encouraged by government, it will ultimately be come a branch of lucrative commerce to that colony. Sicily, Corfu, and other islands in the Meditenanean, are also eligible for rearing this insect. In order the more effectually to secure its extension and cultivation in the island of Malta, government should offer a premium on every pound weight of cochineal which is produced on the island for the first two years, after which period its cultivation would be prosperous.
[The present price of cochineal in this market is $2.90 to (3 00 per pound—being one dollar less than the average price for several years past.]
16.11.16
Havens färger.
Hangö-Bladet 75, 2.7.1914
Skalden sjunger om "havets blåa bölja", men havet är visst inte alltid blått. Det kan iakttagas många olika färger på haven och många intressanta förhållanden ha iakttagits i sammanhang därmed.
Medelhavet äger den verkligt blåa färgen och denna har hänförts till två orsaker. Den ena är, att mycket stora floder flyta ut i detsamma. Den andra är, att detta av land så gott som inneslutna hav, utsatt som det är för det kraftiga solljuset, har den största avdunstningen av alla hav. Genom försök har fastställts, att Medelhavets vatten är tyngre och saltare än Atlantens, vilket är en viktig faktor ifråga om orsaken till dess färg.
Jämsides med grönt och blått, kan man iakttaga andra färger hos jordens sjöar och hav. I januari 1909 observerades en och en halv svensk mil bred och oerhört lång ström av gult vatten, som flöt parallellt med Golvströmmen. Den räckte från Kap Florida till Kap Hatteras och åstadkorns otvivelaktigt genom en omvälvning på havsbottnen, troligen vulkanisk. Den varade några veckor.
År 1901 blev havet utanför Kalifornien nästan svart. Hela viken vid Santa Cruz antog denna bläckfärg och fisket tog slut. I detta fall kunde man icke finna den verkliga orsaken till fenomenet.
Den maltröda färgen på Röda havet, av vilken det fått detta namn, påstås bero på närvaron av millioner sinom millioner mikroskopiska alger.
Gula Havet i Kina säges hava sin färg alt tacka de massor av lerigt vatten, som den stora floden Jangt-Se-Kiang gjuter ut i havet. Många vetenskapsmän äro emellertid av den mening, alt färgen bör tillskrivas de levande organismer, som frodas i dess vatten.
I allmänhet kan man säga, alt vattnets blå färg står i bestämt förhållande till dess salthalt. I tropikerna gör den väldiga avdunstningen, orsakad av det brännande solskenet, vattnet mycket saltare än som är fallet under nordligare och sydligare breddgrader. Omkring 30 grader norr och söder om ekvatorn äger vattnet en utsökt azurfärg. Utanför dessa breddgrader avlar den blåa färgen och övergår i grönt. Kring polerna äro haven nästan lika klart gröna, som tropikernas hav äro blåa.
Skalden sjunger om "havets blåa bölja", men havet är visst inte alltid blått. Det kan iakttagas många olika färger på haven och många intressanta förhållanden ha iakttagits i sammanhang därmed.
Medelhavet äger den verkligt blåa färgen och denna har hänförts till två orsaker. Den ena är, att mycket stora floder flyta ut i detsamma. Den andra är, att detta av land så gott som inneslutna hav, utsatt som det är för det kraftiga solljuset, har den största avdunstningen av alla hav. Genom försök har fastställts, att Medelhavets vatten är tyngre och saltare än Atlantens, vilket är en viktig faktor ifråga om orsaken till dess färg.
Jämsides med grönt och blått, kan man iakttaga andra färger hos jordens sjöar och hav. I januari 1909 observerades en och en halv svensk mil bred och oerhört lång ström av gult vatten, som flöt parallellt med Golvströmmen. Den räckte från Kap Florida till Kap Hatteras och åstadkorns otvivelaktigt genom en omvälvning på havsbottnen, troligen vulkanisk. Den varade några veckor.
År 1901 blev havet utanför Kalifornien nästan svart. Hela viken vid Santa Cruz antog denna bläckfärg och fisket tog slut. I detta fall kunde man icke finna den verkliga orsaken till fenomenet.
Den maltröda färgen på Röda havet, av vilken det fått detta namn, påstås bero på närvaron av millioner sinom millioner mikroskopiska alger.
Gula Havet i Kina säges hava sin färg alt tacka de massor av lerigt vatten, som den stora floden Jangt-Se-Kiang gjuter ut i havet. Många vetenskapsmän äro emellertid av den mening, alt färgen bör tillskrivas de levande organismer, som frodas i dess vatten.
I allmänhet kan man säga, alt vattnets blå färg står i bestämt förhållande till dess salthalt. I tropikerna gör den väldiga avdunstningen, orsakad av det brännande solskenet, vattnet mycket saltare än som är fallet under nordligare och sydligare breddgrader. Omkring 30 grader norr och söder om ekvatorn äger vattnet en utsökt azurfärg. Utanför dessa breddgrader avlar den blåa färgen och övergår i grönt. Kring polerna äro haven nästan lika klart gröna, som tropikernas hav äro blåa.