Jokamiehen ja joka naisen viikkolehti 26, 4.7.1908
Kauneuden huippuna pidetään Borneosaarella värjättyä tukkaa. Naiset värjäävät usein tukkansa punaiseksi, siniseksi, viheriäksi tai sinipunervaksi. Intiassa on mustiksi värjättyjä hampaita pidetty naisten kesken hyvin kauniina.
Coloriasto on väriaiheisten tekstien (ja kuvien) verkkoarkisto
(Archive for colour themed articles and images)
INDEX: coloriasto.net
Englands och Tysklands kamp om främsta platsen på kemiskt industriella områden.
Finsk Tidskrift 4, 1898
Naturvetenskaplig och teknisk öfversikt.
Redigerad af G. Mattsson.
[Väriä koskeva osuus.]
[---]
Jämsides med den utveckling på det territorialpolitiska området, som manifesterar sig i diverse små "kupper" i fjärran östern och annanstädes, går en annan på handelspolitikens och storindustrins gebit, icke så påfallande som den förra, men med tiden minst lika genomgripande. Det är också här det jorden famnande England, som spelar en hufvudroll och likasom i kolonialpolitiskt hänseende ser sitt världsvälde hotadt, sin oomtvistliga supremati ifrågasatt. Tyskland uppträder nämligen här med en alt mera fruktad konkurrens, och många af de senaste årens händelser visa att detsamma säkert går fram mot sitt mål: att på särskilda industriella områden taga arf efter det på naturliga resurser oerhördt rika, men på en talrik kohort af vetenskapligt bildade teknici - industrins enda pålitliga lifvakt -blottade England. Den ofta beledda, ja ökända tyska vetenskapliga grundligheten tar ut sin rätt och det tjugonde seklet skall skörda,dess säkra frukter.
Det är särskildt# ett område af kemisk industri, där Tyskland småningom slagit under sig lejonparten, nämligen framställningen af färgämnen ur stenkolstjära. Också torde ingen industribranch i högre grad än denna för sin gynnsamma utveckling fordra en parallelt gående intensiv vetenskaplig värksamhet. Vid början af 1890-talet utgjorde i England årsproduktionen af rå benzol, toluol m. fl. ur stenkolstjära framstälda utgångsmaterial för färgämneberedningen 7,500,000 kg (något öfver hälften af världsproduktionen), medan för Tyskland motsvarande tal utgjorde 3,500,000. Denna för England gynnsamma jämförelse slår emellertid h. o. h. om, när det tillagges att värdet på de ur nämda slags råvaror framstälda färgprodukterna för Tyskland vid samma tid utgjorde c. 80,000,000 mk per år, medan Englands belöpte sig till endast hälften. Denna Öfverraskande motsägelse, som under de senaste åren med all sannolikhet blifvit än bjärtare, får sin förklaring i den enkla omständigheten, att England exporterar nästan alt sitt råmaterial till Tyskland, hvars industrimän tack vare vetenskapens assistens kunna bearbeta detsamma. Man har äfven numera i England begynt få ögonen öppna för den fara, som hotar detsamma också på den fredliga värksamhetens område och begynt inse att det är mera än smälek, som döljes under den kända devisen "made in Germany", hvilken bäres af alla de industriartiklar som engelsmännen för sin räkning låta fabricera i Tyskland. Engelska kemister sändas till kontinenten för att studera förhållandena, tyska kemister anställas vid engelska fabriker. Utvecklingen, sådan den styrts af en hel generations rastlösa forskning, låter dock icke häjda sig, och om äfven mot förväntan det inrotade engelska studiesättet, hvars princip är: "icke mera än
hvad man för sin utkomst behöfver", snart blefve genomgripande reformeradt, äro tyskarna på det nämda området redan så framom det stolta örikets män, att Englands industriella detronisering icke längre utgör endast en hopplös Önskan hos dess afundsmän.
För icke länge sedan lästes i "Chemische Industrie" om att man i Tyskland på färgkemins område nått det länge eftersträfvade målet att kunna på konstgjord väg framställa indigo, detta af gammalt värderade färgämne, till ett pris som föga öfverskjuter priset på naturlig, från britiska Indien importerad, och därtill i en form som gör den konstgjorda indigons användning betydligt mindre mödosam och tidsödande än den naturliga produktens. Detta innebär åter ett hårdt slag för den engelska kemiska industrin, i det att Tyskland hittils årligen importerat för c. 1,400,000 mk indigo från engelska besittningar, men numera icke blott helt och hållet kan undvara Englands anbud i den vägen, utan äfven uppträda såsom en segerviss konkurrent på världsmarknaden.
Karaktäristisk för situationen är äfven den not engelska kolonialministern Chamberlain i november 1895 adresserade till samtliga engelska koloniers guvernörer samt vicekonungen af Indien, med en uppfordran att med det första till regeringen insända noggranna uppgifter öfver de engelska industrialstrens relativa tillbakagång på kolonialmarknaden äfvensom förslag till åtgärder för motarbetande af denna för moderlandet ödesdigra motgång. Därjämte önskades uppgift öfver hvilka stater som härvid gjort det största intrånget. Svar ingingo sedermera från 32 af koloniernas styresmän och utgåfvos i tryck, sammanförda i en "blå bok", hvilken med äkta engelsk öppenhet gjordes tillgänglig för alla, också utlänningar. Tyskarna, som jämte Yankees funno sig vara just de som trängt den engelska handeln närmast in på lifvet, jublade öfver denna blå bok och rikta med ökad ifver sina kommersiella ansträngningar på vissa af de engelska kolonierna, särskildt i Australien.
På så sätt fortgår i det tysta en het kamp mellan två väldiga nationer, en kamp af oanad bärvidd också i det politiska.
Emellertid ha engelsmännen ännu icke slagit under sig all den koloniala råvaruproduktion, som de måhända kunna bernaktiga sig, och det är pä dylikt håll de söka ersättning för hvad som i annat går dem förloradt. Just för närvarande pågår bl. a. i Chile en svår strid mellan engelska kapitalister och chilenska m. fl. om herraväldet på salpeter-marknaden. Salpeter utgör såsom bekant Chiles viktigaste naturliga exportartikel, och de oerhörda massor däraf, som brytas inom dess landamären, hamna till större delen i gamla världen för att där användas dels såsom gödningsämne (på grund af kväfvehalten), dels vid sprängämnefabrikationen. Chilenska regeringen har för att bringa upp statsinkomsterna tilistadt en ohäjdad öfverproduktion, hvarigenom salpetern fallit i pris och de chilenska småhandlarne stå inför ruin. Engelsmännen ha därigenom kunnat på gynnsamma vilkor få i sina händer en stor del af en marknad, som förnuftigt ledd alltid skall gifva afkastning. Enligt en uppgift i Chem. Ind beräknas England vid slutet af år 1899 disponera Öfver minst 65% af hela salpeterproduktionen.
Orsakerna till prisfallet äro emellertid också andra än den nämda. Det bedrifves nämligen, särskildt från tyskt håll, en stark "anti-salpeteragitation" till förmån för ett annat såsom artificielt gödningsmaterial användbart kväfvehaltigt ämne, nämligen ammoniumsulfat, en af gasindustrins biprodukter. För att skada salpeterhandeln har man i Europa bl. a. påstått sig finna, att den chilenska varan innehåller en högst betydande mängd - 5 å 6% - kaliumperklorat, ett veritabelt gift för växterna. Detta varningsrop har naturligtvis bragt salpetern i stark misskredit, trots det att chilenska myndigheter genom sorgfälliga analyser ådagalagt att halten kaliumperklorat ingenstädes hos råsalpetern öfverstiger ¼ % (en tämligen ofarlig mängd) och att man i Europa med afsikt inblandat nämda salt ifrån Chile importerad salpeter.
Den chilenska regeringen har nu i den nationella ekonomins intresse börjat drifva en storartad salpeterpropaganda i alla jordens länder, och för året 1898 - 1899 är i dylikt syfte anslagen den oerhördt stora summan af inemot 1 miljon mk. En miljon endast för osäkert värkande reklamer! Äfven Nordeuropa skall utsättas för ett chilenskt hufvudangrepp och det återstår för oss blott att se om den år 1896 till 8,500 kg uppgående salpeterimporten till Finland skall visa något afsevärdt uppåtgående under detta och närmaste år.
Det är emellertid kolossala intressen, som den befarade salpeterrevolutionen sätter i rörelse. De chilenska tullinkomsterna af salpeter ga upp till irundt tal 100 miljoner mark, och af europeiska länder konsumerar ensamt Tyskland öfver 400 miljoner kg salpeter per år (däraf 2/3 för landtbruksändamål). Såframt icke den förtviflade propaganda Chile nu arrangerat inom kort stegrar afsättningen, kommer efter 2 à 3 år en fruktansvärd krach att inträffa, och det är icke mera än en mening om hvilken nation det blir som i sådant fall skall öfvertaga administrationen, alla tyska intriger till trots.
Naturvetenskaplig och teknisk öfversikt.
Redigerad af G. Mattsson.
[Väriä koskeva osuus.]
[---]
Jämsides med den utveckling på det territorialpolitiska området, som manifesterar sig i diverse små "kupper" i fjärran östern och annanstädes, går en annan på handelspolitikens och storindustrins gebit, icke så påfallande som den förra, men med tiden minst lika genomgripande. Det är också här det jorden famnande England, som spelar en hufvudroll och likasom i kolonialpolitiskt hänseende ser sitt världsvälde hotadt, sin oomtvistliga supremati ifrågasatt. Tyskland uppträder nämligen här med en alt mera fruktad konkurrens, och många af de senaste årens händelser visa att detsamma säkert går fram mot sitt mål: att på särskilda industriella områden taga arf efter det på naturliga resurser oerhördt rika, men på en talrik kohort af vetenskapligt bildade teknici - industrins enda pålitliga lifvakt -blottade England. Den ofta beledda, ja ökända tyska vetenskapliga grundligheten tar ut sin rätt och det tjugonde seklet skall skörda,dess säkra frukter.
Det är särskildt# ett område af kemisk industri, där Tyskland småningom slagit under sig lejonparten, nämligen framställningen af färgämnen ur stenkolstjära. Också torde ingen industribranch i högre grad än denna för sin gynnsamma utveckling fordra en parallelt gående intensiv vetenskaplig värksamhet. Vid början af 1890-talet utgjorde i England årsproduktionen af rå benzol, toluol m. fl. ur stenkolstjära framstälda utgångsmaterial för färgämneberedningen 7,500,000 kg (något öfver hälften af världsproduktionen), medan för Tyskland motsvarande tal utgjorde 3,500,000. Denna för England gynnsamma jämförelse slår emellertid h. o. h. om, när det tillagges att värdet på de ur nämda slags råvaror framstälda färgprodukterna för Tyskland vid samma tid utgjorde c. 80,000,000 mk per år, medan Englands belöpte sig till endast hälften. Denna Öfverraskande motsägelse, som under de senaste åren med all sannolikhet blifvit än bjärtare, får sin förklaring i den enkla omständigheten, att England exporterar nästan alt sitt råmaterial till Tyskland, hvars industrimän tack vare vetenskapens assistens kunna bearbeta detsamma. Man har äfven numera i England begynt få ögonen öppna för den fara, som hotar detsamma också på den fredliga värksamhetens område och begynt inse att det är mera än smälek, som döljes under den kända devisen "made in Germany", hvilken bäres af alla de industriartiklar som engelsmännen för sin räkning låta fabricera i Tyskland. Engelska kemister sändas till kontinenten för att studera förhållandena, tyska kemister anställas vid engelska fabriker. Utvecklingen, sådan den styrts af en hel generations rastlösa forskning, låter dock icke häjda sig, och om äfven mot förväntan det inrotade engelska studiesättet, hvars princip är: "icke mera än
hvad man för sin utkomst behöfver", snart blefve genomgripande reformeradt, äro tyskarna på det nämda området redan så framom det stolta örikets män, att Englands industriella detronisering icke längre utgör endast en hopplös Önskan hos dess afundsmän.
För icke länge sedan lästes i "Chemische Industrie" om att man i Tyskland på färgkemins område nått det länge eftersträfvade målet att kunna på konstgjord väg framställa indigo, detta af gammalt värderade färgämne, till ett pris som föga öfverskjuter priset på naturlig, från britiska Indien importerad, och därtill i en form som gör den konstgjorda indigons användning betydligt mindre mödosam och tidsödande än den naturliga produktens. Detta innebär åter ett hårdt slag för den engelska kemiska industrin, i det att Tyskland hittils årligen importerat för c. 1,400,000 mk indigo från engelska besittningar, men numera icke blott helt och hållet kan undvara Englands anbud i den vägen, utan äfven uppträda såsom en segerviss konkurrent på världsmarknaden.
Karaktäristisk för situationen är äfven den not engelska kolonialministern Chamberlain i november 1895 adresserade till samtliga engelska koloniers guvernörer samt vicekonungen af Indien, med en uppfordran att med det första till regeringen insända noggranna uppgifter öfver de engelska industrialstrens relativa tillbakagång på kolonialmarknaden äfvensom förslag till åtgärder för motarbetande af denna för moderlandet ödesdigra motgång. Därjämte önskades uppgift öfver hvilka stater som härvid gjort det största intrånget. Svar ingingo sedermera från 32 af koloniernas styresmän och utgåfvos i tryck, sammanförda i en "blå bok", hvilken med äkta engelsk öppenhet gjordes tillgänglig för alla, också utlänningar. Tyskarna, som jämte Yankees funno sig vara just de som trängt den engelska handeln närmast in på lifvet, jublade öfver denna blå bok och rikta med ökad ifver sina kommersiella ansträngningar på vissa af de engelska kolonierna, särskildt i Australien.
På så sätt fortgår i det tysta en het kamp mellan två väldiga nationer, en kamp af oanad bärvidd också i det politiska.
Emellertid ha engelsmännen ännu icke slagit under sig all den koloniala råvaruproduktion, som de måhända kunna bernaktiga sig, och det är pä dylikt håll de söka ersättning för hvad som i annat går dem förloradt. Just för närvarande pågår bl. a. i Chile en svår strid mellan engelska kapitalister och chilenska m. fl. om herraväldet på salpeter-marknaden. Salpeter utgör såsom bekant Chiles viktigaste naturliga exportartikel, och de oerhörda massor däraf, som brytas inom dess landamären, hamna till större delen i gamla världen för att där användas dels såsom gödningsämne (på grund af kväfvehalten), dels vid sprängämnefabrikationen. Chilenska regeringen har för att bringa upp statsinkomsterna tilistadt en ohäjdad öfverproduktion, hvarigenom salpetern fallit i pris och de chilenska småhandlarne stå inför ruin. Engelsmännen ha därigenom kunnat på gynnsamma vilkor få i sina händer en stor del af en marknad, som förnuftigt ledd alltid skall gifva afkastning. Enligt en uppgift i Chem. Ind beräknas England vid slutet af år 1899 disponera Öfver minst 65% af hela salpeterproduktionen.
Orsakerna till prisfallet äro emellertid också andra än den nämda. Det bedrifves nämligen, särskildt från tyskt håll, en stark "anti-salpeteragitation" till förmån för ett annat såsom artificielt gödningsmaterial användbart kväfvehaltigt ämne, nämligen ammoniumsulfat, en af gasindustrins biprodukter. För att skada salpeterhandeln har man i Europa bl. a. påstått sig finna, att den chilenska varan innehåller en högst betydande mängd - 5 å 6% - kaliumperklorat, ett veritabelt gift för växterna. Detta varningsrop har naturligtvis bragt salpetern i stark misskredit, trots det att chilenska myndigheter genom sorgfälliga analyser ådagalagt att halten kaliumperklorat ingenstädes hos råsalpetern öfverstiger ¼ % (en tämligen ofarlig mängd) och att man i Europa med afsikt inblandat nämda salt ifrån Chile importerad salpeter.
Den chilenska regeringen har nu i den nationella ekonomins intresse börjat drifva en storartad salpeterpropaganda i alla jordens länder, och för året 1898 - 1899 är i dylikt syfte anslagen den oerhördt stora summan af inemot 1 miljon mk. En miljon endast för osäkert värkande reklamer! Äfven Nordeuropa skall utsättas för ett chilenskt hufvudangrepp och det återstår för oss blott att se om den år 1896 till 8,500 kg uppgående salpeterimporten till Finland skall visa något afsevärdt uppåtgående under detta och närmaste år.
Det är emellertid kolossala intressen, som den befarade salpeterrevolutionen sätter i rörelse. De chilenska tullinkomsterna af salpeter ga upp till irundt tal 100 miljoner mark, och af europeiska länder konsumerar ensamt Tyskland öfver 400 miljoner kg salpeter per år (däraf 2/3 för landtbruksändamål). Såframt icke den förtviflade propaganda Chile nu arrangerat inom kort stegrar afsättningen, kommer efter 2 à 3 år en fruktansvärd krach att inträffa, och det är icke mera än en mening om hvilken nation det blir som i sådant fall skall öfvertaga administrationen, alla tyska intriger till trots.
Distinguishing Blue Colors.
Harper's new monthly magazine 239, 1870
To distinguish between Berlin blue and indigo or aniline blue, as dyes on cloth, it is only necessary to moisten a small portion of the colored cloth with a few drops of a solution of fluoride of potassium in water, and to direct upon it a current of steam. The Berlin blue by this process is removed, while indigo and aniline blues remain undisturbed.
The same method can be used in distinguishing nut-gall ink from that of indigo carmine, the former being destroyed in the process, while the latter assumes a red color.
To distinguish between Berlin blue and indigo or aniline blue, as dyes on cloth, it is only necessary to moisten a small portion of the colored cloth with a few drops of a solution of fluoride of potassium in water, and to direct upon it a current of steam. The Berlin blue by this process is removed, while indigo and aniline blues remain undisturbed.
The same method can be used in distinguishing nut-gall ink from that of indigo carmine, the former being destroyed in the process, while the latter assumes a red color.
Tampereen elinkeinohistoriasta. Wanhat wärjärit.
Aamulehti 157, 10.7.1901
1820 luwulla sai Tampereen wärjärikunta muitakin lisäksensä kuin Kasper Grekin. Koska monet näistä tulokkaista tuliwat pitkäaikaisiksi ammatin harjoittajiksi kaupungissa ja koska heidän pääsemiseensä usein liittyi aikaa ja käsityksiä kuwaawia seikkoja, ansaitsewat jotkut heistä mainitsemista.
W. 1820 pyrki ja pääsi eräs Jakob Henrik Dahlberg wärjäriksi Tampereelle, kun nyt oli parantanut entistä elämäänsä. Tämän nuoren sällin pyrkimys niin arwokkaaseen ammattiin kuin wärjäreiden, herätti wanhoisfa mestareissa pahaa werta, joka näkyy Fredr. Grekin wastutuskirjoituksessaan oikeudelle. Hänen Majesteettinsa (Hans Magisstedt) kuningas Kustaa III, sanottiin siinä, on kyllä antanut jokaiselle luwan asettua Tampereelle, waan me luulemme ettei täällä pitäisi ymmärtää sitä, että jos joku poika on opissa tai wähän pitemmällä, hän silloin luulee olewansa kyllin taitama ruwetakseen mestariksi ja porwariksi suorittamatta asianmukaisesti näytettä, että hän todella taitaa sitä ammattia, jota hän aikoo harjoittaa. Kun kaikkien wiisaitten hallitusten tarkoituksena on saadatattawimmat mestarit nostamaan tehtaita ja ammatteja mahdollisen korkeimpaan täydellisyyteen, jäisi tarkoitus täten saawuttamatta.
Että oppipoika woi hankkia niin paljon tietoja wärjäystieteessä (så mycket kunskap i färgeri Wettenskapen) että hän mahdollisesti woi suorittaa kisällinäytteen, ei lainkaan todista, että hän woisi sen jälkeenolla taitawa mestari ja tehtailija, se on selwä ja sula mahdottomuus, ja mitäpä tulewaisuuttaan wähemmin ajattelewa wälittäisi edistymisestään tieteessään, kun hän luulee perustuskirjan olewan hänen puolellaan ja sen nojalla tulee mestariksi milloin häntä huwittaa; mutta me uskallamme wäittää, ettei hän siten tule mestariksi waan "fuskariksi" ja sen tähden yleisön pettäjäksi."
Näistäkin sanoista näkyy, mestarit ajatteliwat kaupungin perustuskirjasta ja minkälaiseksi se olisi tullut, jos he olisivat saaneet kirjoittaa. He oliwat wäsymättömiä wastustamaan uusia tulokkaita; katsottiin nähtäwästi ammattikunnan arwoa alentawaksi päästää ketään ammattikuntaa ahdistamatta hänen kunniaansa. Kun wärjärinsälli Dawid Molin w. 1823 esitti itseään wärjärin ammattiin, wastari Fredr. Greg, joka korkeamman siwistyksensä kautta oli wärjärien itseoikeutettu puhemies, ettei keisarin tarkoitus liene ollut, että porwarit söisiwät toisensa, niinkuin tulisi käymään, jos Molin pääsisi ammattiin, koska wärjäreitä oli jo kaupungissa kokonaista 8. Samoin kun wärjärinsäli Stening näytteet suoritettuaan w. 1825 pyrki Tampereen wärjärien joukkoon, riin peloitteli Greg häntä suurilla maksuilla ja weroilla tulewaisuudessa. Hänen onnistuikin täten saada pyrkijän takuumiehet peruuttamaan takauksensa, mutta Stening hankku uudet ja pääsi kuin pääsikin wärjäriksi, waikka itse Gustaf Lundahl wastusti pyrkijää, koska kaupungissa oli jo kymmenen wärjäriä ja muita käsityöläisiä ei ollut muuttanut kaupunkiin samassa suhteessa. Ainoa, joka näinä wuosina muistuttamatta pääsi Tampereelle wärjäriksi oli Elias Granlud (1824).
Emme woi arwostella missä määrin wärjärin ammatti Tampereella olisi luonnottoman nopeasti kehittynyt, mutta luulemme kuitenkin Lundahlin lausunnon ettei muita käsityöläisiä ollut muutttanut kaupunkiin samassa suhteessa todistawan sitä, että wärjärien ammatti oli paremmassa kukoistuksessa kuin muut käsityöläiselinkeinot. Wärjärien luwun nopea lisääntyminen on sitä silmäänpistäwämpi kuin Tampereen kaupunkiin näihin aikoihin sanomalehtiilmoituksilla koetettiin houkutella toisia ammattilaisia, joita ei sittenkään tahtonut saapua. Näin ollen olisi siis kilpailun pelossa ollut se sisin syy, joka saattoi wanhat wärjärit sotaretkelle joka kerta kuin uusi wärjäri pyrki heidän jo "liian suureen" ammattipiiriinsä.
***
Wärjärien ammattikunnan suuri merkitys kaupungissa näkynee riittäwästi seuraawista numeroluwuista, jotka olemme ottaneet kaupungin wanhoista wero (sekstonteeli) luetteloista w. 1825.
Liikettä harjoittawia wärjäreitä oli yhteensä w. 1825 (wuoden lopussa) Tampereella 12, joiden lisäksi tulee wärjäri Lagerqwistin perikunta, jota werotettiin tontista ja wesilaitoksista. Näiden wärjäriperjeiden "sekstonteelit" (=weroäyrit) werrattuina koko kaupungin sekstonteelimääriin tekiwät w- 1825:

Kuten näkyy oli siis w. 1825 yli 8% kaupungin tonteista wärjärien hallussa ja koko kaupungin warsinaisista warallisuusäyreistä tuli heidän osalleen lähes 11½%. Jos wärjärit tällöin oliwat köyhiä, oli koko kaupunki köyhä. Kaupungin kymmenestä wesilaitoksesta oli 5 wärjärien walkkia.
***
Tampereen wärjärien werstaista ja osittain myös tekniikasta 1830-luwulla antaa walaisewia tietoja eräs w. 1836 toimitettu wärjäyslaitosten tutkimus, joka samalla on hywä yleiskatsaus Tampereen koko wanhemmasta wärjäyselinkeinosta. Tämä tutkimus toimitettiin kaupungin uuden rakennusjärjestyksen woimaan astuttua w.t. wiskaalin aloitteesta wärjäyslaitosten tulenwaarallisuuden wuoksi. Wärjärien puolelta tehtiin wiskaalin kannetta wastaan se yleinen huomautus, että heidän wärjäämönsä oliwat perustetut kauwan ennen kuin kaupungille armossa wahwistettu rakennusjärjestys, oli woimaanastunut ja sellaisena aikana, jolloin kaupunki oli ollut perin harwaan asuttu, sekä etteiwät he jaksaisi muuttaa laitoksiaan kaupungin ulkopuolelle ja wielä wähemmin rakentaa niitä kiwestä, niinkuin wiskaali oli waatinut. Mutta jäipä huomautuksia tehtäwäksi tarkastusmiehillekin.
1820 luwulla sai Tampereen wärjärikunta muitakin lisäksensä kuin Kasper Grekin. Koska monet näistä tulokkaista tuliwat pitkäaikaisiksi ammatin harjoittajiksi kaupungissa ja koska heidän pääsemiseensä usein liittyi aikaa ja käsityksiä kuwaawia seikkoja, ansaitsewat jotkut heistä mainitsemista.
W. 1820 pyrki ja pääsi eräs Jakob Henrik Dahlberg wärjäriksi Tampereelle, kun nyt oli parantanut entistä elämäänsä. Tämän nuoren sällin pyrkimys niin arwokkaaseen ammattiin kuin wärjäreiden, herätti wanhoisfa mestareissa pahaa werta, joka näkyy Fredr. Grekin wastutuskirjoituksessaan oikeudelle. Hänen Majesteettinsa (Hans Magisstedt) kuningas Kustaa III, sanottiin siinä, on kyllä antanut jokaiselle luwan asettua Tampereelle, waan me luulemme ettei täällä pitäisi ymmärtää sitä, että jos joku poika on opissa tai wähän pitemmällä, hän silloin luulee olewansa kyllin taitama ruwetakseen mestariksi ja porwariksi suorittamatta asianmukaisesti näytettä, että hän todella taitaa sitä ammattia, jota hän aikoo harjoittaa. Kun kaikkien wiisaitten hallitusten tarkoituksena on saadatattawimmat mestarit nostamaan tehtaita ja ammatteja mahdollisen korkeimpaan täydellisyyteen, jäisi tarkoitus täten saawuttamatta.
Että oppipoika woi hankkia niin paljon tietoja wärjäystieteessä (så mycket kunskap i färgeri Wettenskapen) että hän mahdollisesti woi suorittaa kisällinäytteen, ei lainkaan todista, että hän woisi sen jälkeenolla taitawa mestari ja tehtailija, se on selwä ja sula mahdottomuus, ja mitäpä tulewaisuuttaan wähemmin ajattelewa wälittäisi edistymisestään tieteessään, kun hän luulee perustuskirjan olewan hänen puolellaan ja sen nojalla tulee mestariksi milloin häntä huwittaa; mutta me uskallamme wäittää, ettei hän siten tule mestariksi waan "fuskariksi" ja sen tähden yleisön pettäjäksi."
Näistäkin sanoista näkyy, mestarit ajatteliwat kaupungin perustuskirjasta ja minkälaiseksi se olisi tullut, jos he olisivat saaneet kirjoittaa. He oliwat wäsymättömiä wastustamaan uusia tulokkaita; katsottiin nähtäwästi ammattikunnan arwoa alentawaksi päästää ketään ammattikuntaa ahdistamatta hänen kunniaansa. Kun wärjärinsälli Dawid Molin w. 1823 esitti itseään wärjärin ammattiin, wastari Fredr. Greg, joka korkeamman siwistyksensä kautta oli wärjärien itseoikeutettu puhemies, ettei keisarin tarkoitus liene ollut, että porwarit söisiwät toisensa, niinkuin tulisi käymään, jos Molin pääsisi ammattiin, koska wärjäreitä oli jo kaupungissa kokonaista 8. Samoin kun wärjärinsäli Stening näytteet suoritettuaan w. 1825 pyrki Tampereen wärjärien joukkoon, riin peloitteli Greg häntä suurilla maksuilla ja weroilla tulewaisuudessa. Hänen onnistuikin täten saada pyrkijän takuumiehet peruuttamaan takauksensa, mutta Stening hankku uudet ja pääsi kuin pääsikin wärjäriksi, waikka itse Gustaf Lundahl wastusti pyrkijää, koska kaupungissa oli jo kymmenen wärjäriä ja muita käsityöläisiä ei ollut muuttanut kaupunkiin samassa suhteessa. Ainoa, joka näinä wuosina muistuttamatta pääsi Tampereelle wärjäriksi oli Elias Granlud (1824).
Emme woi arwostella missä määrin wärjärin ammatti Tampereella olisi luonnottoman nopeasti kehittynyt, mutta luulemme kuitenkin Lundahlin lausunnon ettei muita käsityöläisiä ollut muutttanut kaupunkiin samassa suhteessa todistawan sitä, että wärjärien ammatti oli paremmassa kukoistuksessa kuin muut käsityöläiselinkeinot. Wärjärien luwun nopea lisääntyminen on sitä silmäänpistäwämpi kuin Tampereen kaupunkiin näihin aikoihin sanomalehtiilmoituksilla koetettiin houkutella toisia ammattilaisia, joita ei sittenkään tahtonut saapua. Näin ollen olisi siis kilpailun pelossa ollut se sisin syy, joka saattoi wanhat wärjärit sotaretkelle joka kerta kuin uusi wärjäri pyrki heidän jo "liian suureen" ammattipiiriinsä.
***
Wärjärien ammattikunnan suuri merkitys kaupungissa näkynee riittäwästi seuraawista numeroluwuista, jotka olemme ottaneet kaupungin wanhoista wero (sekstonteeli) luetteloista w. 1825.
Liikettä harjoittawia wärjäreitä oli yhteensä w. 1825 (wuoden lopussa) Tampereella 12, joiden lisäksi tulee wärjäri Lagerqwistin perikunta, jota werotettiin tontista ja wesilaitoksista. Näiden wärjäriperjeiden "sekstonteelit" (=weroäyrit) werrattuina koko kaupungin sekstonteelimääriin tekiwät w- 1825:
Kuten näkyy oli siis w. 1825 yli 8% kaupungin tonteista wärjärien hallussa ja koko kaupungin warsinaisista warallisuusäyreistä tuli heidän osalleen lähes 11½%. Jos wärjärit tällöin oliwat köyhiä, oli koko kaupunki köyhä. Kaupungin kymmenestä wesilaitoksesta oli 5 wärjärien walkkia.
***
Tampereen wärjärien werstaista ja osittain myös tekniikasta 1830-luwulla antaa walaisewia tietoja eräs w. 1836 toimitettu wärjäyslaitosten tutkimus, joka samalla on hywä yleiskatsaus Tampereen koko wanhemmasta wärjäyselinkeinosta. Tämä tutkimus toimitettiin kaupungin uuden rakennusjärjestyksen woimaan astuttua w.t. wiskaalin aloitteesta wärjäyslaitosten tulenwaarallisuuden wuoksi. Wärjärien puolelta tehtiin wiskaalin kannetta wastaan se yleinen huomautus, että heidän wärjäämönsä oliwat perustetut kauwan ennen kuin kaupungille armossa wahwistettu rakennusjärjestys, oli woimaanastunut ja sellaisena aikana, jolloin kaupunki oli ollut perin harwaan asuttu, sekä etteiwät he jaksaisi muuttaa laitoksiaan kaupungin ulkopuolelle ja wielä wähemmin rakentaa niitä kiwestä, niinkuin wiskaali oli waatinut. Mutta jäipä huomautuksia tehtäwäksi tarkastusmiehillekin.
Diamond Ink for Writing on Glass.
Manufacturer and builder 3 / 1881
A mixture for writing on glass has lately been put on the market, under the name of "diamond ink," which is pronounced to be a very useful article for druggists and others for labelling bottles containing substances which would destroy ordinary labels. It has been examined, and found to consist of a mixture of ammonium fluoride, barium sulphate and sulphuric acid; the proportions for its manufacture being, barium sulphate, 3 parts; ammonium fluoride, 1 part; and sulphuric acid enough to decompose the fluoride and make a mixture of semi-fluid consistency. This mixture, when brought in contact with a glass surface on the parts it comes in contact with. The philosophy of the action is the decomposition of the ammonium fluoride by the acid, which disengages hydrofluoric acid, which attacks the glass; the barium sulphate is inert and is simply used to prevent the spreading of the markings. The mixture must be kept in bottles coated on the inside with paraffine or wax.
A mixture for writing on glass has lately been put on the market, under the name of "diamond ink," which is pronounced to be a very useful article for druggists and others for labelling bottles containing substances which would destroy ordinary labels. It has been examined, and found to consist of a mixture of ammonium fluoride, barium sulphate and sulphuric acid; the proportions for its manufacture being, barium sulphate, 3 parts; ammonium fluoride, 1 part; and sulphuric acid enough to decompose the fluoride and make a mixture of semi-fluid consistency. This mixture, when brought in contact with a glass surface on the parts it comes in contact with. The philosophy of the action is the decomposition of the ammonium fluoride by the acid, which disengages hydrofluoric acid, which attacks the glass; the barium sulphate is inert and is simply used to prevent the spreading of the markings. The mixture must be kept in bottles coated on the inside with paraffine or wax.
12.2.12
Värjääminen kotimaisilla kasviaineilla.
Emäntälehti 10/1908
Kaikki kasvit kootaan, kun ne ovat täysin kehittyneitä ja siis vielä meheviä.
Jos tahtoo värjätä tuoreilla kasveilla, mutta ei ole tilaisuudessa tekemään sitä heti, voi kasvit kyllä säilyttää muutamia päiviä kylmässä kellarissa tai kosteassa ruohossa ja varjossa, mutta ei kovasti yhteen sullottuina, koska ne siitä helposti tulevat ruskeiksi ja kadottavat väri voimaa.
Kasvit, jotka kootaan talvitarpeiksi, ovat kuivattavat hyvin ja nopeasti ilmavilla, varjoisilla paikoilla, esim. luvassa, ladossa tai vintillä, jossa ikkunat pidetään auki ja jossa kasvit levitetään ohueisiin kerroksiin ja niitä jonkun kerran liikutellaan. Ne eivät koskaan saa kuivaa päivänpaisteessa. Niitä ei myöskään saa sulloa yhteen ennenkuin ne ovat oikein kuivat, etteivät ne tulisi ruskeiksi ja homehtuisi. Kun ne ovat ihan kuivat, säilytetään ne säkeissä tai lautahinkaloissa kuivalla paikalla. Lepänlehvät eivät, kaikesta varovaisuudesta huolimatta, voi säilyttää vihreätä väriään, vaan muuttuu väri harmaaksi.
Kuori kootaan siihen aikaan vuotta, jolloin mahla juoksee ja se helpointen irtaantuu puusta. Se on parasta nuorista sammaltumattomista puista, mutta 2-3 vuotta nuoremmista oksista ei sitä pidä ottaa, koska niissä on vähemmässä määrin väriaineita. Kaikkia kuorilajia voidaan käyttää sekä tuoreina että kuivattuina, mutta edellisistä tulee voimakkaampi väri.
Lehvät kerätään, kun ne ovat täysin kehittyneet, noin juhannuksen aikaan, riippuen kuitenkin aikaisesta tai myöhäisestä kesästä. Ne voidaan myöskin kerätä myöhemmin kesällä, mutta tulee niistä silloin heikompi väri.
Allaluetellut kasvit ovat yleisimmin käytetyt:
Koivun (Betula alba ja hetula odorata) kuoresta tulee harmaankeltanen väri. Koivun kuoresta on tuohi poistettava.
Omenapuun (Pyrus malus) kuori sisältää voimakasta, punakeltasta väriainetta.
Paatsaman (Rhamnus frangula) kuori, josta tulee väkevä pronssinkeltanen väri. Jos paatsamalla värjätyt langat pannaan kylmään lipeään, tulee väri punertavaa (tiilinpunasta).
Harmaa- ja Tervalepän (Alnus incana ja alnus glutinosa) kuori. Niistä tulee keltasenharmaa väri.
Tuomen (Prunus padus) kuori, josta tulee punasenkeltanen väri.
Happomarja. (Berberis vulgaris.) Sisältää himmeänkeltasta väriä. Siitä kerätään ainoastaan nuoret latvat, ennenkuin pensas puhkee kukkaan. Käytetään ainoastaan tuoreena.
Koivun ja lepänlehdet sisältävät erilaista keltasta väriä. Niitä voidaan käyttää sekä tuoreina että kuivattuna.
Nokkonen (Urtica dioica). Sisältää tuoreena vihreänkeltasta, kuivattuna kaunista harmaankeltasta väriä; voidaan myöskin käyttää mustaksi värjättävän purettamiseen. Kerätään ennenkuin se tekee nuppuja.
(Jatketaan.)
Kaikki kasvit kootaan, kun ne ovat täysin kehittyneitä ja siis vielä meheviä.
Jos tahtoo värjätä tuoreilla kasveilla, mutta ei ole tilaisuudessa tekemään sitä heti, voi kasvit kyllä säilyttää muutamia päiviä kylmässä kellarissa tai kosteassa ruohossa ja varjossa, mutta ei kovasti yhteen sullottuina, koska ne siitä helposti tulevat ruskeiksi ja kadottavat väri voimaa.
Kasvit, jotka kootaan talvitarpeiksi, ovat kuivattavat hyvin ja nopeasti ilmavilla, varjoisilla paikoilla, esim. luvassa, ladossa tai vintillä, jossa ikkunat pidetään auki ja jossa kasvit levitetään ohueisiin kerroksiin ja niitä jonkun kerran liikutellaan. Ne eivät koskaan saa kuivaa päivänpaisteessa. Niitä ei myöskään saa sulloa yhteen ennenkuin ne ovat oikein kuivat, etteivät ne tulisi ruskeiksi ja homehtuisi. Kun ne ovat ihan kuivat, säilytetään ne säkeissä tai lautahinkaloissa kuivalla paikalla. Lepänlehvät eivät, kaikesta varovaisuudesta huolimatta, voi säilyttää vihreätä väriään, vaan muuttuu väri harmaaksi.
Kuori kootaan siihen aikaan vuotta, jolloin mahla juoksee ja se helpointen irtaantuu puusta. Se on parasta nuorista sammaltumattomista puista, mutta 2-3 vuotta nuoremmista oksista ei sitä pidä ottaa, koska niissä on vähemmässä määrin väriaineita. Kaikkia kuorilajia voidaan käyttää sekä tuoreina että kuivattuina, mutta edellisistä tulee voimakkaampi väri.
Lehvät kerätään, kun ne ovat täysin kehittyneet, noin juhannuksen aikaan, riippuen kuitenkin aikaisesta tai myöhäisestä kesästä. Ne voidaan myöskin kerätä myöhemmin kesällä, mutta tulee niistä silloin heikompi väri.
Allaluetellut kasvit ovat yleisimmin käytetyt:
Koivun (Betula alba ja hetula odorata) kuoresta tulee harmaankeltanen väri. Koivun kuoresta on tuohi poistettava.
Omenapuun (Pyrus malus) kuori sisältää voimakasta, punakeltasta väriainetta.
Paatsaman (Rhamnus frangula) kuori, josta tulee väkevä pronssinkeltanen väri. Jos paatsamalla värjätyt langat pannaan kylmään lipeään, tulee väri punertavaa (tiilinpunasta).
Harmaa- ja Tervalepän (Alnus incana ja alnus glutinosa) kuori. Niistä tulee keltasenharmaa väri.
Tuomen (Prunus padus) kuori, josta tulee punasenkeltanen väri.
Happomarja. (Berberis vulgaris.) Sisältää himmeänkeltasta väriä. Siitä kerätään ainoastaan nuoret latvat, ennenkuin pensas puhkee kukkaan. Käytetään ainoastaan tuoreena.
Koivun ja lepänlehdet sisältävät erilaista keltasta väriä. Niitä voidaan käyttää sekä tuoreina että kuivattuna.
Nokkonen (Urtica dioica). Sisältää tuoreena vihreänkeltasta, kuivattuna kaunista harmaankeltasta väriä; voidaan myöskin käyttää mustaksi värjättävän purettamiseen. Kerätään ennenkuin se tekee nuppuja.
(Jatketaan.)
Ottilia Adelborg:Kasveilla värjäämisestä.
Emäntälehti 7-8/1906
(Otettu lehdestä "Hemtrefnad.")
Eräänä valoisana kevätpäivänä oli minulla asiata yhteen pieneen tupaseen. Tuvan emäntä oli minua vastassa kynnyksellä. Hän oli nuori ja tuli reippaana ja suorana minua kohti. Hänellä oli syli täynnä koivun lehtiä, joita hän oli ollut mäellä riipimässä ja joilla hänen piti värjätä yksi lapsenpuku. Sellainen keltainen lapsenpuku, jonka lapsilla muutamin paikoin Taalainmaassa näkee.
Kun me tulimme tupaan, pani emäntä koivun lehdet suureen kuparikattilaan, joka seisoi tulella; sitte pani hän lapsenhameen sinne, ja meidän puhuessamme, seisoi hän ja käänteli hametta kepillä, että se tulisi kauniisti ja tasaisesti värjätyksi. Kun me olimme hetkisen puhelleet, oli myöskin hame valmiiksi värjätty. Emäntä nosti sen kattilasta kauniin keltaisena ja koreana.
Koivun lehdillä värjätty! Ainoa laji kasvivärjäystä, joka on säilynyt meidän aikoihimme asti. Kaikki muu on unohdettu ja poissa. Mutta ennen aikaan käytettiin yksinomaan kasvivärejä.
Sammalella värjättiin ruskeata, koivun lehdillä keltaista ja viheriäistä ja koiranputkella keltaista. Kaikenlaisia värejä värjättiin kasveilla. Kasveja poimittiin metsistä ja kedoilta, mutta muutamia lisäaineita,joita tarvittiin eräisiin väreihin, hankittiin apteekeista. Tahkovettäkin käytettiin, kun tarvittiin rautaa tahi ruostetta väriin.
Nämä kasvivärit eivät maksaneet mitään! Ainakaan eivät ne, joihin ei tarvittu lisiä apteekista. Tämä oli ehdottomasti hyvä asia. Ja nämä värit olivat pysyviä. Ja se oli kaikista tärkeintä. Ne voivat tosin vanhempina hiukan vaalentua, mutta ne vaalentuivat kauniisti. Tarkoitan, että punainen väri oli aina punainen, vaikka hiukan ehkä lämpeni väriltään; ja viheriäinen väri pysyi vaaletessaan aina kuitenkin viheriänä j. n. e. Nämä värit pysyivät sekä auringossa että pesussa. Tämä näkyy parhaiten kaikissa vanhoissa, kauniissa kankaissa, joita on jälellä täällä Ruotsissa sekä Skånessa että Smålannissa ja Taalainmaalla, ja joissa kankaissa vielä tänäänkin on sellainen värien loisto, jota me emme voi kankaisiimme saada, juuri sen vuoksi, että me olemme unohtaneet kasveilla värjäämistaidon niin kokonansa.
Kauan on kasveilla värjääminen ollut unohdettu, hyljätty, halveksittu, niin sanoakseni nurkkaan heitetty. Ja miksi?
Siksi, että kauppaan on yleisesti tullut, onnetonta kyllä, noin kolmekymmentä, neljäkymmentä vuotta sitte aniliinivärejä eli niin sanottuja pakettivärejä. Tosinhan on hyvin mukavata ilmaiseksi riipiä sylinsä täyteen koivun lehtiä ja värjätä niillä. Mutta sitte kun pussivärit tulivat kauppaan, niin on vielä mukavampi pistäytyä kauppapuotiin ja muutamilla penneillä ostaa pakettiväriä. Ja sellaisia värejä! Ne loistavat niin silmään pistävästi - sellaisia värejä ei koskaan ole luonnossa. - Ne loistavat ja ovat komeita kumminkin yhden vuoden, mutta sitte ne vaalenevat ja muuttuvat rumiksi. Ne muuttuvat kaikki harmaiksi. Viheriäinen ja sininen, punanen ja keltanen, kaikki vaalentuvat ne harmaiksi - rumimmaksi likaisen harmaaksi. Ja sellaista väriä kyllä voipi saada vaatteisiinsa, ostamatta sitä rahalla kauppiaalta ja tuhlaamatta aikaa värjäämiseen.
Ja nyt minä kerron, mitä minä näin Moran pitäjässä Taalain maalla.
Me tulimme sinne, eräs ystävä ja minä, näkemään jotakin, jota toivoimme ja uskoimme näkevämme. Ja me olimme suuresti utelijaat! Me tiesimme, että tuo, jota meidän piti nähdä, olisi nähtävänä eräällä pienellä saarella Daljoessa. Kaukaa näimme me koko saaren olevan ohuen sinisen savun peitossa. Se näytti hyvin salaperäiseltä.
Mutta kun me tulimme sinisen savun alueelle, saimme me nähdä jotain hyvin hauskaa! Joukko nuoria, reippaita neitosia eri pitäjistä oli täällä kasveilla värjäämässä.- He olivat kuumana innosta ja työstä.Tangoilla riippui jo valmiiksi värjätyitä lankavyyhtiä, punaisia, keltaisia, viheriöitä ja sinisiä, yksinkertaisia ja iloisia värejä - mutta ei niin silmäänpistäviä ja huutavia kuin pakettivärien värit. Älkäämme enää koskaan puhuko tai ajatelko pakettivärejä!
Pieni värjäyslaitos oli tänne rakennettu, aivan väliaikaisesti. Eräs norjalainen, neiti Hilda Cristensen, oli opettajana ja 20 neitosta oli oppilaana. Ja tässä kurssissakos oli vasta iloa ja hartautta.
Värjäystupa oli hyvin käytännöllisesti rakennettu. Ikkunoita oli joka puolella ja pitkin seiniä oli pöytiä, hyllyjä ja penkkejä. Keskellä huonetta oli 6 kappaletta rautauunia muurattuna. Sitäpaitsi oli useita muureja asetettu kattojen alle ulos mäelle. Kaikkialla oli kiehuvia kattiloita, joissa värjättiin lankoja kasviväreillä.
Paljon oli töitä tekeillä samalla aikaa, niinkuin täytyy ollakin sellaisessa kurssissa, jossa joka oppilaan täytyy oppia jokainen asia erikseen.
Täällä oli muutamia neitosia, jotka hakkasivat kanervia, tuolla muutamat valmistivat oikeata putinkia sammalesta ja villasta vuorotellen. Muutamat pesivät villoja ja lankoja. Tämä on tärkeimpiä töitä koko värjäyksessä. Sillä jolleivat langat ja villat ole puhtaita niin eivät värit niihin tartu. Muutamat alunoivat lankoja ja toiset jälleen huuhtovat niitä ihanan Daljoen kirkkaassa vedessä. Sillä aikaa kun muutamat yhä uudelleen ja uudelleen kääntelivät lankavyyhtiänsä, jotka kiehuivat kattiloissa, oli toisten vyyhdet jo valmiina ja riippuivat tangoilla. Niitä sitte katseltiin ja ihmeteltiin, miksi toiset olivat vaaleampia toiset tummempia.
Koko ajan oli opettaja, neiti Christensen, tyyni ja varma, johti kaikki, selitti ja järjesti, että kaikki työ kävi hyvin ja reippaasti.
Minä luulen, että siellä oli kaksikymmentä oppilasta. Jokaisella oppilaalla oli oma pesupönttö, oma kuparikattila, kori, pyyhinliinat, säkki ja kolme kiloa villoja tahi lankoja. Tällätavalla oli paljo työkapineita ja aineita. -Edellä puolenpäivän värjättiin, jälkeen puolenpäivän koottiin sammalia, kanervaa tahi kukkia, tahi mitä muuta seuraavan päivän värjäykseen tarvittiin. Monet oppilaista olivat vapaaoppilaita. Koko puuhan oli kustantanut Kopparbergin läänin talousseura. Varmaankin hyvin käytetyt rahat.
Jokainen näistä neitosista, niitä on ollut nyt kahdessa kurssissa, palaa sitte omaan pitäjäänsä ja opettaa toisille, mitä on itse oppinut. Jospa vaan kasveilla värjääminen taaskin tulisi oikeaan arvoonsa, voisi toivoa,että kansan väriaisti saisi luonnollisen makunsa ja kohtuullisuutensa.
Kansan aistin ovat kokonaan turmelleet nuo ilkeät pakettivärit. Mutta - meidänhän ei enää pitänyt mitään puhua niistä!
Kaikki, mikä on uutta, täytyy ensin kokea. Mutta jos nyt palataan takaisin vanhoihin kasviväreihin, niin on se vaan todistus siitä, että ne olivat parempia, luotettavempia ja oikeampia.
Varmaa on, että vanhat, hyvät kasviväreillä värjätyt kankaat ovat väriltään tyynempiä ja lujempia, ja kertovat meille metsistä ja kedoista, niityn kukkasista, puiden lehdistä ja kivien sammalista ja jäkälöistä - mutta ennen kaikkea, uskollisten ruotsin naisten iloisesta työstä, jolla he ovat tahtoneet kotiansa kaunistaa tahi kestäviä, kunnollisia myötäjäisiä tyttärilleen valmistaa.
(Otettu lehdestä "Hemtrefnad.")
Eräänä valoisana kevätpäivänä oli minulla asiata yhteen pieneen tupaseen. Tuvan emäntä oli minua vastassa kynnyksellä. Hän oli nuori ja tuli reippaana ja suorana minua kohti. Hänellä oli syli täynnä koivun lehtiä, joita hän oli ollut mäellä riipimässä ja joilla hänen piti värjätä yksi lapsenpuku. Sellainen keltainen lapsenpuku, jonka lapsilla muutamin paikoin Taalainmaassa näkee.
Kun me tulimme tupaan, pani emäntä koivun lehdet suureen kuparikattilaan, joka seisoi tulella; sitte pani hän lapsenhameen sinne, ja meidän puhuessamme, seisoi hän ja käänteli hametta kepillä, että se tulisi kauniisti ja tasaisesti värjätyksi. Kun me olimme hetkisen puhelleet, oli myöskin hame valmiiksi värjätty. Emäntä nosti sen kattilasta kauniin keltaisena ja koreana.
Koivun lehdillä värjätty! Ainoa laji kasvivärjäystä, joka on säilynyt meidän aikoihimme asti. Kaikki muu on unohdettu ja poissa. Mutta ennen aikaan käytettiin yksinomaan kasvivärejä.
Sammalella värjättiin ruskeata, koivun lehdillä keltaista ja viheriäistä ja koiranputkella keltaista. Kaikenlaisia värejä värjättiin kasveilla. Kasveja poimittiin metsistä ja kedoilta, mutta muutamia lisäaineita,joita tarvittiin eräisiin väreihin, hankittiin apteekeista. Tahkovettäkin käytettiin, kun tarvittiin rautaa tahi ruostetta väriin.
Nämä kasvivärit eivät maksaneet mitään! Ainakaan eivät ne, joihin ei tarvittu lisiä apteekista. Tämä oli ehdottomasti hyvä asia. Ja nämä värit olivat pysyviä. Ja se oli kaikista tärkeintä. Ne voivat tosin vanhempina hiukan vaalentua, mutta ne vaalentuivat kauniisti. Tarkoitan, että punainen väri oli aina punainen, vaikka hiukan ehkä lämpeni väriltään; ja viheriäinen väri pysyi vaaletessaan aina kuitenkin viheriänä j. n. e. Nämä värit pysyivät sekä auringossa että pesussa. Tämä näkyy parhaiten kaikissa vanhoissa, kauniissa kankaissa, joita on jälellä täällä Ruotsissa sekä Skånessa että Smålannissa ja Taalainmaalla, ja joissa kankaissa vielä tänäänkin on sellainen värien loisto, jota me emme voi kankaisiimme saada, juuri sen vuoksi, että me olemme unohtaneet kasveilla värjäämistaidon niin kokonansa.
Kauan on kasveilla värjääminen ollut unohdettu, hyljätty, halveksittu, niin sanoakseni nurkkaan heitetty. Ja miksi?
Siksi, että kauppaan on yleisesti tullut, onnetonta kyllä, noin kolmekymmentä, neljäkymmentä vuotta sitte aniliinivärejä eli niin sanottuja pakettivärejä. Tosinhan on hyvin mukavata ilmaiseksi riipiä sylinsä täyteen koivun lehtiä ja värjätä niillä. Mutta sitte kun pussivärit tulivat kauppaan, niin on vielä mukavampi pistäytyä kauppapuotiin ja muutamilla penneillä ostaa pakettiväriä. Ja sellaisia värejä! Ne loistavat niin silmään pistävästi - sellaisia värejä ei koskaan ole luonnossa. - Ne loistavat ja ovat komeita kumminkin yhden vuoden, mutta sitte ne vaalenevat ja muuttuvat rumiksi. Ne muuttuvat kaikki harmaiksi. Viheriäinen ja sininen, punanen ja keltanen, kaikki vaalentuvat ne harmaiksi - rumimmaksi likaisen harmaaksi. Ja sellaista väriä kyllä voipi saada vaatteisiinsa, ostamatta sitä rahalla kauppiaalta ja tuhlaamatta aikaa värjäämiseen.
Ja nyt minä kerron, mitä minä näin Moran pitäjässä Taalain maalla.
Me tulimme sinne, eräs ystävä ja minä, näkemään jotakin, jota toivoimme ja uskoimme näkevämme. Ja me olimme suuresti utelijaat! Me tiesimme, että tuo, jota meidän piti nähdä, olisi nähtävänä eräällä pienellä saarella Daljoessa. Kaukaa näimme me koko saaren olevan ohuen sinisen savun peitossa. Se näytti hyvin salaperäiseltä.
Mutta kun me tulimme sinisen savun alueelle, saimme me nähdä jotain hyvin hauskaa! Joukko nuoria, reippaita neitosia eri pitäjistä oli täällä kasveilla värjäämässä.- He olivat kuumana innosta ja työstä.Tangoilla riippui jo valmiiksi värjätyitä lankavyyhtiä, punaisia, keltaisia, viheriöitä ja sinisiä, yksinkertaisia ja iloisia värejä - mutta ei niin silmäänpistäviä ja huutavia kuin pakettivärien värit. Älkäämme enää koskaan puhuko tai ajatelko pakettivärejä!
Pieni värjäyslaitos oli tänne rakennettu, aivan väliaikaisesti. Eräs norjalainen, neiti Hilda Cristensen, oli opettajana ja 20 neitosta oli oppilaana. Ja tässä kurssissakos oli vasta iloa ja hartautta.
Värjäystupa oli hyvin käytännöllisesti rakennettu. Ikkunoita oli joka puolella ja pitkin seiniä oli pöytiä, hyllyjä ja penkkejä. Keskellä huonetta oli 6 kappaletta rautauunia muurattuna. Sitäpaitsi oli useita muureja asetettu kattojen alle ulos mäelle. Kaikkialla oli kiehuvia kattiloita, joissa värjättiin lankoja kasviväreillä.
Paljon oli töitä tekeillä samalla aikaa, niinkuin täytyy ollakin sellaisessa kurssissa, jossa joka oppilaan täytyy oppia jokainen asia erikseen.
Täällä oli muutamia neitosia, jotka hakkasivat kanervia, tuolla muutamat valmistivat oikeata putinkia sammalesta ja villasta vuorotellen. Muutamat pesivät villoja ja lankoja. Tämä on tärkeimpiä töitä koko värjäyksessä. Sillä jolleivat langat ja villat ole puhtaita niin eivät värit niihin tartu. Muutamat alunoivat lankoja ja toiset jälleen huuhtovat niitä ihanan Daljoen kirkkaassa vedessä. Sillä aikaa kun muutamat yhä uudelleen ja uudelleen kääntelivät lankavyyhtiänsä, jotka kiehuivat kattiloissa, oli toisten vyyhdet jo valmiina ja riippuivat tangoilla. Niitä sitte katseltiin ja ihmeteltiin, miksi toiset olivat vaaleampia toiset tummempia.
Koko ajan oli opettaja, neiti Christensen, tyyni ja varma, johti kaikki, selitti ja järjesti, että kaikki työ kävi hyvin ja reippaasti.
Minä luulen, että siellä oli kaksikymmentä oppilasta. Jokaisella oppilaalla oli oma pesupönttö, oma kuparikattila, kori, pyyhinliinat, säkki ja kolme kiloa villoja tahi lankoja. Tällätavalla oli paljo työkapineita ja aineita. -Edellä puolenpäivän värjättiin, jälkeen puolenpäivän koottiin sammalia, kanervaa tahi kukkia, tahi mitä muuta seuraavan päivän värjäykseen tarvittiin. Monet oppilaista olivat vapaaoppilaita. Koko puuhan oli kustantanut Kopparbergin läänin talousseura. Varmaankin hyvin käytetyt rahat.
Jokainen näistä neitosista, niitä on ollut nyt kahdessa kurssissa, palaa sitte omaan pitäjäänsä ja opettaa toisille, mitä on itse oppinut. Jospa vaan kasveilla värjääminen taaskin tulisi oikeaan arvoonsa, voisi toivoa,että kansan väriaisti saisi luonnollisen makunsa ja kohtuullisuutensa.
Kansan aistin ovat kokonaan turmelleet nuo ilkeät pakettivärit. Mutta - meidänhän ei enää pitänyt mitään puhua niistä!
Kaikki, mikä on uutta, täytyy ensin kokea. Mutta jos nyt palataan takaisin vanhoihin kasviväreihin, niin on se vaan todistus siitä, että ne olivat parempia, luotettavempia ja oikeampia.
Varmaa on, että vanhat, hyvät kasviväreillä värjätyt kankaat ovat väriltään tyynempiä ja lujempia, ja kertovat meille metsistä ja kedoista, niityn kukkasista, puiden lehdistä ja kivien sammalista ja jäkälöistä - mutta ennen kaikkea, uskollisten ruotsin naisten iloisesta työstä, jolla he ovat tahtoneet kotiansa kaunistaa tahi kestäviä, kunnollisia myötäjäisiä tyttärilleen valmistaa.
Seppo Lahti: Topaasin värejä high tech -menetelmin
Kivi 2, 2010
Teksti ja kuvat: Seppo Lahti.
Luonnossa topaasi on usein värittöminä tai hyvin vaaleansävyisinä muunnoksina. Aikaisemmin sen värejä osattiin parantaa säteily- ja lämpökäsittelyn avulla, mutta nykyisin kiven pintaan voidaan tehdä värikerros high tech -tekniikan keinoin käyttäen hyväksi erilaisia fysikaalisia ja kemiallisia kaasupinnoitusmenetelmiä ja pintadiffuusiomenetelmiä. Markkinoilla olevan topaasin värien kirjo on sen vuoksi uskomattoman laaja ja jalokiveksi hiotun kiven tunnistaminen on tullut yhä hankalammaksi.
Luonnontopaasin värin aiheuttaam ineraalin hilassa satunnaisesti esiintyvät siirtymäalkuaineet ja etenkin erilaiset värikeskukset. Kiven värejä voidaan muuttaa lämpökäsittelyn ja radioaktiivisen säteilyn avulla. Lämmitys tuhoaa värikeskukset tai muuttaa niiden rakennetaa, kun taas radioakviitinen säteily, joko luonnonsäteily tai keinotekoinen säteily saa aikaan uusia värikeskuksia. Säteilyn vaikutus topaasin väreihin havaittiin 1940-luvulla, mutta topaasin värien muuttaminen säteilykäsittelyn avulla yleistyi vasta vuosikymmeniä myöhemmin.
Viimeisen parinkymmenen vuoden aikana on kehitetty suuri joukko menetelmiä, joilla topaasin väriä voidaan muuttaa ja sen ominaisuuksia muutenkin parantaa. Varsinkin erikoiset värimuunnokset ja useissa väreissä iridisoivat kalvopinnoitetut topaasit voat hämmentäneet jalokivien ostajia. Käsitellyn kiven väriloisto voi olla niin voimakas, että se ei enää edes näytä aidolta luonnonkiveltä.
Väritön viiste tai pyöröhiottu topaasi voidaan pinnoittaa värejä aiheuttavilla metalliyhdisteillä ja kulutusta kestävillä aineilla, jopa timantilla. Kiven päällystämiseen käytetään erilaisia pintadiffuusiomenetelmiä (Contact heat treatment), fysikaalisia kaasupinnoitusmenetelmiä eli PVD-menetelmiä (Physical Vapor Deposition) ja kemiallisia kaasupinnoitusmenetelmiä eli CVD-menetelmiä (Chemical Vapor Deposition). Laitteet ovat periaatteessa samanlaisia, joita on kehitetty alun perin elektroniikan komponenttien valmistusta varten ja linssien pinnoitusta varten.
Tässä artikkelissa kerrotaan lyhyesti millaisia keinotekoisesti aikaansaatuja topaasin värimuunnoksia on nykyisin saatavilla. Uusia jalokivien käsittelymenetelmiä on patentoitu jatkuvasti. Kalvopinnoitettujen kivien lisäksi markkinoille on tullut myös edullisia värittömästä topaasista tehtyjä yhdistelmäkiviä, joissa kiven yläosa ja alaosa on sulatettu yhteen eri kappaleista. Niiden välissä on ohut värin aiheuttava pinnoitekerros. Koruun kiinnitetyssä kivessä yhdistelmärakennetta on vaikea havaita, koska värikalvo jätetään hiottaessa kiven reunuksen kohdalle.
Säteily ja lämpökäsittely
Lämpökäsittelyllä aikaansaadut värimuutokset ovat usein esiintymäkohtaisia ja riippuvat paljon kiven epäpuhtauksista, esim. kromi-, rauta-, vanadiini- ja titaanipitoisuudesta ja kivessä olevista värikeskuksista. Ruskeansävyinen luonnontopaasi muuttuu usein värittömäksi lämpökäsittelyn aikana ruskean värikeskuksen tuhoutuessa. Jos topaasin rakenteessa on vähääkään kromia, kivestä tulee kuitenkin vaaleanpunainen tai punainen. Valtaosa markkinoilla olevasta brasilialaisesta vaaleanpunaisesta topaasista on tehty ruskeasta tai oranssista topaasista lämpökäsittelyn avulla. Toisaalta radioaktiivinen säteily muuttaa värittömän topaasin usein ruskeanvihreäksi, mutta kiveä lämmittäessä se muuttuukin siniseksi ruskean värikeskuksen tuhoutuessa.
[Lämpökäsittelyn avulla tehtyä punaista topaasia (koko 8x11 mm).]
Sininen topaasi on säilyttänyt tärkeän asemansa suosituimpana topaasimuunnoksena. Käytännössä kaikki kaupan oleva voimakkaan sininen topaasi tehdään juuri radioaktiivisen säteilyn avulla värittömästä topaasista. Synteettisesti topaasia ei valmisteta lainkaan, sillä väritöntä topaasia on markkinoilla aivan riittävästi.
Sinisen värin syntymekanismeja on tutkittu innokkaasti eri menetelmin. Monissa julkaisuissa on todettu, että värin aiheuttaa ilmeisesti säteilyn vaikutuksesta happi-ioneihin syntyvät aukkovärikeskukset (O--värikeskukset). Sininen väri on pysyvä eikä se haalistu auringon valon vaikutuksesta.
Värittömän luonnontopaasin muuttaminen vaaleansiniseksi gammasäteilyn (säteilylähden radioaktiivinen koboltti 60Co tai cesium 137Cs) avulla on tunnettu jo 1940-luvulta lähtein. Kivi muuttuu säteilykäsittelyn vaikutuksesta ruskeaksi, mutta muuttuu siniseksi, kun sitä lämmitetään tämän jälkeen 1-2 tuntia 200-250° C:n lämpötilassa.
Nykyisin gammasäteilyä ei yleensä enää käytetä, sillä vielä kauniimpaa taivaansinistä topaasia tehdään säteilyttämällä väritöntä topaasia lineaarikiihdyttimissä nopeilla elektroneilla. Säteilykäsittelyn aikana kivi muuttuu ruskeaksi, mutta se saadaan kauniin siniseksi lämpökäsittelyn avulla. Tämän ns. Sky Blue topaasin teollinen valmistus alkoi 1970-luvun alussa Kaliforniassa.
Lineaarikiihduttimet ovat tutkimuslaitteita, joissa elektroneja voidaan kiihdyttää voimakkaiden sähkömagneettien avulla. Epäpuhtauksia sisältävässä topaasihilassa korkeaenergiaiset elektronit törmäävät happi-ionien heikoti sitoutuneisiin valenssielektroneihin, siirtävät ne muualle ja samalla kiveen syntyy sinisen värin aiheuttama aukkovärikeskus, joka on pysyvä.
[Säteilykäsittelyn avulla tehtyä London Blue -topaasia (halkaisija 10 mm).]
Tummansinistä topaasia, joka kulkee kauppanimellä London Blue, saadaan aikaan, jos säteilykäsittely tehdään neutronien avulla. London Blue -topaasin valmistus alkoi vuonna 1975 Englannissa. Kaikkein kauneinta topaasia, intensiivisen sinistä Swiss Blue -topaasia saadaan, jos säteilykäsittely tehdään ensin neutronien avulla ja tämän jälkeen vielä lineaarikiihdyttimen elektronivuossa. Swiss Bluen valmistus alkoi 1980-luvun alussa.
[Säteilykäsittelyn avulla tehtyä Swiss Blue -topaasia (koko 9 x 11 mm).]
Hiukkassäteilyn (elektronit ja neutronit) avulla säteilytetty topaasi jää hieman radioaktiiviseksi. Tämän vuoksi Sky Blue, London Blue ja Swiss Blue topaaseja joudutaankin käsittelyn jälkeen varastoimaan parisen vuotta.
Pintadiffuusiomenetelmät.
Pintadiffuusiomenetelmässä hiottu kivi ympäröidään väriä aiheuttavilla metalliyhdisteillä, -jauheilla tai metallilevyillä ja kuumennetaan lähelle sulamispistettä. Tällöin metalliatomit tunkeutuvat hitaasti topaasihilaan ja kiven pitnaan syntyy ohut väriä antava kerros.
[Leslie & Co:n valmistamaa diffuusiopinnoitettua Evergreen®-topaasia (halkaisija 9 mm).]
Menetelmä kehitettiin alun perin USA:ssa Linden laboratoriossa jo 1970-luvulla, kun ruvettiin valmistamaan sinisiä diffuusiopinnoitettuja safiireja ja tähtisafireja. Sen sijaan pintadiffuusiotopaasit tulivat ensi kertaa markkinoille vuonna 1998, kun amerikkalainen yritys Leslie & Co rupesi valmistamaan Richard Pollakin kehittämällä PHDTM-pintadiffuusiomenetelmällä tuotettua vihreää EverGreen®-topaasia. Yhtiö on valmistanut toki myös muita värimuunnoksia. Sen tuotemerkkejä ovat olleet EverGreenin lisäksi mm. Teal, Glacier Blue®, Imperial Champagne®, Royal red® ja Bali Bi-ColorTM, jonka toinen pää on sininen ja toinen vihreä.
Vihreä- ja sinisävyinen topaasi tehdään kuumentamalla väritöntä hiottua topaasia koboltti- ja nikkelijauheen tai -yhdisteen kanssa, kun taas esimerkiksi keltaista, oranssia ja punaista topaasia voidaan tehdä rauta- tai kuparipitoisen jauheen avulla. Yhtiön vanhan tiedotteen mukaan pinnoite ei haalistu auringossa, kestää suolavettä ja kiviä voi pestä ultraäänipesulaitteella. Leslie & Co:n lisäksi ainakin Venäjällä ja Brasiliassa on patentoitu hyvin samankaltaisia pintadiffuusiomenetelmiä.
Yrityskauppojen myötä Leslie & Co n siirtynyt muutama vuosi sitten Signity Gemsin omistukseen, jonka pääyhtiö on taas kuuluisa itävaltalainen Swarowski AG. Signity Gemsillä on omia tuotemerkkejä ja patentti omasta pintadiffuusiomenetelmästään, jota se kutsuu nimellä "Thermal Color Fusion" eli lyhennettynä TCF. Tällä menetelmällä tehdään monen värisiä topaaseja, jotka kulkevat nimikkeellä "Passion topaz". Eri värimuunnoksilla on omat nimensä, kuten Poppy (kirkkaan oranssi), Pink, Turquoise blue (harmaan sininen), Complezion (vaal. kellanruskea), Paraiba Blue, Infinite Blue (harmahtavan sininen), Khaki ja Blazing Red. Yhtiön mainoksessa sanotaan Passion topaasin väripinnoituksen olevan hyvin kestävä (http://enlightened.swarowski.com/#/products/passion-topaz).
[Azotic Coating Technologyn tekemää granaatinpunaista "mystistä" topaasia (halkaisija 10 mm).]
Gems & Gemologyssä v. 2008 (44/2, s. 148-154) on tutkimus Swarowskin (Signity Gems) topaaseista. Jalokivien pintarakennetta on analysoitu röntgenfotoelektroni-spektroskopialla (x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS). Analyysien perusteella punaisen värin aiheuttaa kulta, joka tunkeutuu kivessä 100-300 nm:n syvyyteen (huom. 1nm. on miljoonasosa millimetristä). Summer Blue -topaasissa väri johtuu koboltista ja Ice Bluessa koboltista + kromista. Väriä antavan kerroksen paksuus on näissä likimain sama kuin punaisessakin eli ohuempi kuin näkyvien valoaaltojen aallonpituus.
PVD-kalvopinnoitus
Yleisimmin käytetyssä PVD-menetelmässä, reaktiivisessa spurretoinnissa (reactive sputtering) kivet laitetaan vakuumissa olevaan kammioon. Se täytetään argonilla, kaasu ionisoidaan plasmaksi, ioneja ja elektroneja sisältäväksi kaasuksu magnetronin avulla (mikroaalloilla). Argonioneilla pommitetaan, sputteroidaan metallilevyä, jolloin siitä irtoaa ionipilvi. Positiivisesti varautuneet metalli-ionit ohjataan korkeajännitteen avulla kohti näytepidikettä, jossa on negatiivinen varaus. Kammioon voidaan johtaa argonin lisäksi kaasua, joka reagoi metalli-ionien kanssa ja muodostaa kalvon kivien pintaan.
Lopuksi kiviä voidaan lämmittää korkeassa lämpätilassa, jotta väriäa antavat aineet siirtyvät syvemmälle kiveen diffuusion vaikutuksesta samaan tapaan kuin pintadiffuusiokiviä tehtäess- Niinpä imperial topaasin kaltaista kiveä voidaan tehdä pinnoittamalla kivi rauta-, kromi- ja nikkeliyhdisteiden avulla ja sen jälkeen kuumentamalla sitä.
[Reaktiivisessa sputteroinnissa käytettävän PVD-kalvopinnoituslaitteen periaatepiirros.]
Pinnoitteen väriä voi säätää myös muuttamalla lämpötilaa tai hapen määrää lämpökäsittelykammiossa. Kun väritöntä topaasia kuumennetaan ilmassa 900-1000°C:een lämpätilassa kobolttiyhdisteiden kanssa, on tuloksena vihreä topaasi, mutta kivestä tulee sinistä/vihreää 950/1050°C:een lämpötilassa. Pelkistävissä olosuhteissa (typpikaasussa) kuumennettaessa pinnoitteesta tulee taas sininen.
Kalvopinnoite tehdään jalokiven alaosaan, joten kiven yläosa on tavallista luonnontopaasia. Yksi kerros on äärettömän ohut ja sen vuoksi kiven pintaan tehdäänkin useita päällekkäisiä metalli- tai metallioksidikerroksia. Pinnoituksen kovuutta voidaan parantaa metallinitrideillä, borideilla ja karbideilla tai vaikkapa timantilla. Jos kerrosten koostumus sopivasti vaihtelee, kivi iridisoi monivärisenä valon heijastuessa eri kerroksista.
Yhdysvaltain markkinoita hallitseva Azotic Coating Technology, Inc. on erikoistunut tuottamaan reaktiivisella sputteroinnilla ja plasmamenetelmillä monenlaisia koristeellisia pinnoitteita. Ne tehdään yleensä lämpötilassa < 80° C, joten miltei mitä tahansa materiaalia voi pinnoittaa. Lisäksi yhtiö tekee myös uudentyyppisiä timantin kaltaisia hiilipinnotteita eli DLC-pinnotteita (http://www.azotic.us/info.php).
Azotic Coating Technology:llä on suuri joukko erilaisia tuotemerkkejä ja valmistustapoja jalokivien pintakäsittelyä varten. Yhtiö myy muun muuassa topaasia, kvartsia, berylliä, kuutiollista zirkoniaa, safiiria, rubiinia ja kuntsiittia yksi- tai monivärisinä eri tavoin hiottuina ja pinnoitettuina jalokivinä. Lisäksi se myy värikkäiksi pinnoitettuja kiteitä ja kuka tahansa voi ostaa siltä kivien pinnoituspalveluita. Azotic Coating Technologyn kehittämiä menetelmiä on sittemmin ruvettu matkimaan myös muualla, ainakin Kiinassa ja Intiassa, joten markkinoilla olevien kivien laatu vaihtelee suuresti.
[Azotic Coating Technologyn tekemää safiirinsinistä "mystistä" topaasia (koko 10x10 mm).]
[Azotic Coating Technologyn tekemää Mystic Fire®-topaasia (koko 11x11 mm).]
Yksi Azotic Coating Technologyn tunnetuimmista tuotemerkeistä on Mystic Fire® (käytetty myös kauppanimiä Rainbow Topaz, Titanium Topaz, Alaskan Topaz tai Caribbean Topaz), jonka valmistus on patentoitu v. 1998. Kivi hehkuu värikkäänä kuin riikinkukko niin, että se poikkeaa monissa väreissä hehkuvan ulkonäkönsä vuoksi kaikista luonnonkivistä.
Yhtiön internetsivuilla (http://www.azotic.us/gems.php) voi ihailla kaikissa mahdollisissa väreissä hehkuvia iridisoivia tai yksivärisiä "mystisiä" topaaseja, mm. yksivärisiä Myst-FusionTM, Kaleidoscope®- ja PandoraTM- ja MystvanaTM-topaaseja sekä yksi tai useampivärisiä, NirvanamystTM, KaleidoMystTM- ja SurrealTM-topaaseja. Tuotemerkit ovat osittain ajan mittaan muuttuneet, joten niistä löytyy aikaisemmilta vuosilta muitakin. Pinnoite tehdään aina tuotemerkistä riippuen hieman eri tavoin ja myös niiden kestävyys vaihtelee.
Aikaisemmin USA:ssa myös Vision Industries valmisti PVD-menetelmällä monivärisiä Aqua Aura -kiviä (Aqua Aura quartz, Flame Aura quartz, Rainbow quartz) ja myös topaasia. Tänä vuonna en kuitenkaan ole enää löytänyt yhtiön internetsivuja. Vanhoilta internetsivuilta ottamieni kopioiden mukaan yhtiön ruskea Topaz Aqua Aura tehtiin siten, että lämmitetyn (870°C) kiven pintaan sputteroitiin kultaa ja titaania sisältävä kerros. Mystic Fire Green -topaasin pinnoitteessa värin aiheutti titaani, sini- ja vihreänsävyisissä oli kobolttia ja punasävyisissä kyltaa.
CVD-kalvopinnoitus
Kemiallista kaasusaostusta eli CVD-menetelmää käytetään muun muassa timantin ja timantin kaltaisten nanopinnoitteiden valmistamiseen, mutta sitä käytetään myös pinnoitettaessa jalokiviä erilaisilla metalliyhdisteillä. Päällystämistä varten hiotut jalokivet laitetaan näytepidikkeessä vakuumissa olevaan kammioon, johon johdatetaan pinnoitteen lähtöaineita kaasumaisessa muodossa. Metalleja sisältävät kaasut reagoivat keskenään, hajoavat ja muodostavat pinnoitettavan kappaleen, substraatin pinnalle halutun kalvomaisen kerroksen.
[Periaatepiirros plasma-CVD-mentelmästä.]
Useat kemikaalit ja myös metallit höyrystyvät tyhjiössä lämmön avulla. Kaasuuntumista voidaan tehostaa mikroaaltojen (magnetroniin) avulla, jolloin metallit ionisoituvat plasmaksi. Siinä olevat metalli-ionit ohjataan korkeajännitteen avulla näytepidikettä kohti. JOs kammioon johdatetaan metaania, se voidaan hajoittaa plasmaksi ja hiili kiteyttää ohuena nanokiteisenä timanttikalvon näytepidikkeessä olevien jalokivien pinnalle jo alhaisissakin paineolosuhteissa.
TEOS Group Inc valmistaa tavaliittipinnoitteella päällystettyä topaasia ja kuutiollista zirkoniaa (http://www.users.interport.net/l/p/lpierce/index.html). Menetelmän kehitti kalifornialainen yhtiö Deposition Sciences Inc. DLI, Santa Rosa. Tavalite Enterprises of Sonoma (Teos Group Inc.) aloitti Tavaliitti-topaasin markkinoinnin vuonna 1994.
[Tavaliitti topaasia riipuksessa (kivi 10 x 12 mm).]
Tavaliittipinnoitusta varten kiven lämpötila nostetaan 500°C:een, jotta pintamateriaalin raaka-aineena olevat metallipitoiset kaasut saadaan kerrostumaan kiven pintaan. Tavaliitissa on viisi vallitsevaa perussävyä: sininen, vihreä (Jealous love), pinkki (Pink Champagne), kullankeltainen (Sonoma gold) ja punavihreä (Watermelon). Valmistajan mukaan sinistä ja punaista heijastavassa pinnoitteessa on kerroksittain tantaalioksidia ja piioksidia (kvartsia). Tantaalia ja piitä saostetaan vuoron perään äärettömän ohuina kerroksina kiven pintaan ja välillä kerrokset joudutaan käsittelemään hapella, jotta metallit muuttuisivat oksideiksi.
Tavaliitti on ulkonäöltään hyvin erikoista. Kivi loistaa monivärisenä, kun valoaallot heijastuvat pinnoituksen eri kerroksista ja interferoivat keskenään. Valo heijastuu kivestä niin voimakkaasti, että se vaikuttaa katsojasta heti metallin tavoin loistavalta epäaidolta kiveltä. "Mystisestä" topaasista poiketen tavaliitista pinnoitetaan alapinnan lisäksi myös yläpinta. VAlmistajan mukaan pinnoite kestää myös ultraäänipesun.
Vuonna 2001 perustettu Serenity Technologies (http://www.serenitytechnology.com) on kehittänyt oman menetelmän, jolla jalokivet voi päällystää nanokiteisellä CVD-timantilla (DiamantineTM ja Diamond Rx Gem-Coat). Yhtiö tuottaa vaaleanpunaisia ja muunkin värisiä timantteja, värillistä moissaniiittia sekä Sakura-topaasia.
Sakura-topaasin pinnassa on erikoinen kulutusta kestävä ja valoa voimakkaasti heijastava värillinen pintakalvo, jonka Serenity Technologies on kehittänyt. Se koostuu pääosin nanokiteisistä timantti- ja värihiukkasista, niitä sitovasta timantista, sisemmästä kiinnityskalvosta ja ulommasta suojakalvosta. Muuttamalla väripigmenttejä voidaan tehdä halutun väristä topaasia. Pinnoitusmenetelmä on niin uusi, että siitä ei ole paljon vielä tietoja saatavilla ja kiviä ei liene vielä ehtinyt kovinkaan monen jalokiviliikkeen hyllylle.
Center-fused-yhdistelmäkivet
[Sinivihreää safiiria muistuttavaa center-fused -topaasia (koko 9 x 9 mm).]
Sitchy Gems & Lapidary Sri Lankasta (http://www.supergreentopaz.slt.lk/) valmistaa patentoimallaan "Center fused" -menetelmällä topaaseja ja muita jalokiviä. Aluksi topaasiin tehdään värillinen kerros. Sen päälle sulatetaan toinen topaasinpala korkeassa lämpötilassa ja paineessa. Väriä antava kalvo jätetään hiottaessa aina istutusreunuksen kohdalle katsojalta piiloon. Koska kivet on tehty kahdesta erillisestä palasta, niitä voidaan pitää yhdistelmäkivinä.
Yhtiön markkinoimien hiottujen topaasien väriskaala on suuri. Valikoimista löytyy keltaista, oranssia, turmaliinin punaista, safiirin sinistä, ametistin violettia, peridootin vihreää ja jopa väriä vaihtavaa aleksandritti-topaasia. Myös hiontamuotoja on erilaisia. Sithy Gems & Lapidary tarjoaa myös topaasin pinnoituspalveluita ja viistekivien hiontapalveluita.
Center-fused topaaseissa kiven värin aiheuttava kerros on niin paksu, että se voi erottaa luupilla. Kerroksen alapinnassa voi nähdä pieniä sormenjälkiä muistuttavia ilmakuplia. Kiven gemmologisista ominaisuuksista on kerrottu lyhyesti International Gem Societyn www-sivuilla (http://www.gemsociety.org/info/igem25.htm).
Yhteenveto
Nanoteknologian käyttämät kalvopinnoitusmenetelmät kehittyvät koko ajan lähinnä elektroniikkateollisuuden ja optisen teollisuuden kustannuksella. Myös Espoossa on vuonna 1993 perustettu yritys Diarc Technology Oy, joka tekee uudentyyppisiä timantti-, hiilinanokomposiittipinnotteita (ta-C) ja metallipinnotteita (DIARC®), mutta tiettävästi lähinnä metalliteollisuudelle.
[Azotic Coating Technologyn sinistä, vihreää ja punaista kalvopinnoitettua "mystistä" topaasia.]
Uusia high tech-menetelmiä sovelletaan jatkuvasti myös jalokivien pinnoitukseen. Kalvopäällysteisiä jalokiviä tuotetaan pääasiallisesti Yhdysvalloissa, mutta internetistä on saatavissa myös Kauko-Idässä valmistettua diffuusio- ja kalvopinnoitettua topaasia. Lähivuosina eri menetelmin päällystettyjä kiviä tulee varmasti enenevässä määrin myös Suomen markkinoille.
Topaasin tunnistaminen on nykyisin huomattavasti hankalampaa kuin aikaisemmin. Pinnoitettuna sitä on saatavissa vaikka minkä värisenä. Niinpä värillisen sekä CVD- että PVD-menetelmillä päällystetyn jalokiven tunnistaminen vaatii luupin lisäksi muitakin tutkimusvälineitä. Niinpä jo tavaliittipinnoitteista kvartsia ja topaasia on mahdoton erottaa toisistaan paljain silmin ja taitekerroinmittauksin. Mystisen topaasin tunnistaa taulusta mitatun taitekertoimen avulla ja alaosan pinnoituksen voi tunnistaa luupilla, mutta diffuusiotopaasien tunnistaminen vaatii jo mikroskooppia ja muita tutkimusvälineitä.
[Punaista center-fused -topaasia, halkaisija 10 mm.]
Koska menetelmien ja värien kirjo on suuri, kaikkia topaasimuunnoksia ei oel ehditty gemmologisesti karakterisoida. Matti ja Maija Meikäläisen kannattaakin keskittää jalokiviostoksensa luotettaviin liikkeisiin, joissa on ammattitaitoista henkilökuntaa. Heiltä voi kysyä myös tarkemmat ohjeet kivien puhdistusta varten, sillä tietyt pinnoitteet ovat arkoja naarmuuntumaan tai vahingoittuvat pesuaineista.
Myös internetistä kannattaa tutkia mitä jalokivestä sanotaan. Jalokivikauppojen ja gemmologisten seurojen www-sivuilta saattaa löytyä paljon hyödyllistä tietoa. USA:n jalokivikauppiaiden yhdistyksen AGTA:n (American Gem Trade Association) informaatiolehtisessä "The Gemstone Manual" (http://www.agta.org/gemstones/agta-gim/index.html) on selitetty tarkoin eri jalokivien pinnoitus- ja muita käsittelymenetelmiä.
[Säteilykäsiteltyä Swiss Blue topaasia (kivi 9 x 11 mm).]
Kirjallisuutta
Ashbaugh, C.E. (1988). Gemstone irradiation and radioactivity. Gems & Gemology, 24 (4), s. 196-213.
Gabash, H.; Klauser, F.; Bertel, E. & Rauch H. Thomas & Swarowski, D. (2008). Coloring of topaz by coating and diffusion processes: An X-ray photoemission study of what happens beneath the surface. Gems & Gemology 44 (2), s.148-154.
Nassau, K. (1994). Gemstone Enchancement, Butterworth Heinemann, New York, 221 s.
Schmetzer, K. (2006). Surface coating of gemstones, especially topaz - a review of recent patent literature. Journal of Gemmology 30 (1/2), s. 83-90.
Schmetzer, K. (2008). Surface treatment of gemstones, especially topaz - a update of recent patent literature. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 31 (1/2), s. 7-13.
Shigley, J.E. & McClure, S.F. (2009). Laboratory-treated gemstones. Elements 5 (3), s. 175-178.
Smith, C.P. & McClure Shane F. (2002). Chart of commercially available gem treatments. Gems / Gemology 38 (4), s. 294-300.
Day at the Barrowfield Dye-Works, Glasgow
The Penny Magazine of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Vol. 13, liite (heinäkuu 1844)

[Bleaching-Ground - Monteith's Dye-Works, Glasgow.]
Were it not that the subject of calico-printing has already occupied our attention in the "Supplement" for June, 1843, the fine establishment of Messrs. Monteith, at Glasgow, would afford ample opportunity for illustrating many varieties of that beautiful process; but as the differences observable in such establishments, although very marked in the eyes of a manufacturer, are of no moment to those who wish merely to gain a slight insight into the general processes, we shall dispense with any further notice of calico-printing in general. THere are, however, two beautiful processes which stand out somewhat distinctly from calico-printing in general, and for which the Barrowfield Works of the above-named firm have acquired a very wide celebrity, viz. Turkey-red Dyeing and Bandana Handkerchief work: these processes, through the courtesy of the proprietors, we have been allowed to witness; and it is the object of the present article to describe them, as well as the general arrangement of the Works wherein they are conducted.
The Barrowfield Works occupy a very large area of ground at the eastern margin of Glasgow, bordered by the Clyde on one side, and by the excellent "Green" of Glasgow on another. The Londoners might well envy the Glasgow folks the possession of such a Green, for it is an invaluable agent in maintaining the health of the city. It consists of a large park or green, comprising one hundred and forty acres, having the river flowing along one margin, a series of houses along the opposite margin, Hutcheson Bridge at one end, and Rutherglen Bridge at the other. The inhabitants, aided zealously by Dr. Cleland, have successfully resisted all attempts to have this Green built upon; and there it remains, the property of all, with a few clusters of trees here and there, seats for the wearied, gravel walks for the ramblers, and a soft green carpet of sward on which the bare-legged damsels lay out their washed linen to dry, - for it is also a drying-ground open to all the laundresses who choose to avail themselves of it. Amid the smoke and bustle of iron-works, chemical-works, dye-works, cotton-mills, and engine-factories, it is no trifling advantage to have such an open spot.
Having walked across this "Green," then, to its eastern end (and it is a good thing that many of the workmen have to cross this Green on their way to work), we arrive at the gates of the Works, within which is large area of ground occupied partly by buildings, partly by yards and drying-grounds, and partly by green sward as a bleaching-ground. The buildings are in detached groups, and many of them are very large; some being used for dyeing cotton-cloth, some for Turkey-red yarn-dyeing, and others for bandana-work, printing, stoving, and a variety of other processes. The drying-grounds have ranges of poles on which yarn is hung to dry; while the extensive bleach-field requires nothing but a smooth, clean, grassy surface. It may be well at once to remark that this bleach-ground is appropriated wholly to certain stages of the Turkey-red dyeing, and does not relate to bleaching as commonly understood, - chloride of lime having wholly subverted the ancient mode of conducting such bleaching. Those portions of the establishment which are connected with the general processes of printing on calico we shall pass over for reasons just stated, and shall proceed at once to
Turkey-red Dyeing.
Most persons are familiar with the tint of red known as "Turkey-red;" but few would imagine how many have been the experiments as to the best mode of producing it, or the multiplicity of the distinct processes involved in the production. The vegetable substance called madder produces a red which is much employed under the name of "common madder red;" but the "Turkey-red," although produced likewise from madder, is infinitely more brilliant and beautiful, and requires great complexity of operations. The production of this fine colour was first known in India, from whence it travelled to the western part of Asia, and thence to Greece and Turkey. Just about a century ago, two French manufacturers brought some Greek dyers into France, and with their aid established Turkey-red Dye-Works at Rouen and in Languedoc. Mr. Wilson of Ainsworth, near Manchester, endeavoured, about the year 1770, to introduce this mode of dyeing into England; but for some reason or other it does not appear to have succeeded at that time. Some years afterwards a French gentleman, M. Papillon, joined Mr. Mackintosh in the establishment of a Turkey-red Dye-Work at Glasgow. There was an agreement entered into between these gentlemen and the Commissioners and Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland, to the effect that the Turkey-red dye process, at that time a secret in few hands, was to be published for the benefit of the public at the end of a certain term of years. This period expired in 1803; and the trustees then laid a minute account of the different processes before the public. Glasgow, however, having been the first to witness the successful prosecution of the process, continued to maintain its supremacy in that matter, and has ever since been the head-quarters in Britain for this art. Dr. Thomson has observed that "different individuals, possessed of both chemical skill and considerable sagacity, have studied different parts of this very complicated method of dyeing. The effects of each individual operation have been carefully investigated, and the whole has been somewhat shortened and simplified, though it still constitutes the most complicated process in the whole art of dyeing." The red dye was at first given only to the spun yarn; but among the subsequent improvements was that of dyeing the woven cotton itself. We may here remark, that M. Papillon, when he introduced the practice of this art at Glasgow, occupied that part of the Barrofield Works now appropriated to the yarn-dyeing.
Let us suppose that a quantity of cotton-cloth reaches the Works just in the state that it leaves the loom; that is, technically speaking, "in the grey." The first process it undergoes is to plunge it in what is termed a rot-steep; this is a very hot alkaline liquor, the continued action of which on the cloth for many hours removes the "dressing" of paste or size which the yarn had received before weaving, and which, if not removed, would prevent the fibres from imbibing the dye. The cloth having by this process become saturated with alkaline liquor, which must likewise be removed, it is comveyed to a long washing.-house containing a large number of "dash-wheels," similar to those which were sketched and described in the "Supplement" before alluted to. Into these dash-wheels the cloth is introduced, and there rotated with water till cleansed from the alkaline liquor and the dressing. But as the fibres have become saturated with water during this washing, and as this water must removed, the cloth is exposed to the action of a powerful Bramah press, by which a force of five hundred tons is brought to bear upon it, so as to press out the water.
Then ensues a remarkable series of processes, in which almost every one operation is repeated a great number of times, adding considerably to the complexity of the routine. The cloth is put into what is termed a "vomiting-boiler," that is, a boiler so constructed that the water is made to vomit upowards from a pipe, and then to fall fown on the cloth in the boiler, so as to act equally on the whole. The boiler contains a solution of soap and soda, which is allowed to act on the cloth for some hours, so as to prepare the fibres for the reception of liquids afterwards to be applied. From the vomiting-boilers the cloth is conveyed a second time to the wash-wheels, there to be washed clean from the soap and soda, and then a second time to the press, where it is squeezed almost dry. This repeated transfer of the cloth from one vessel to another, and from one part of the building to another, gives employment to a great number of men, who are running to and fro in all directions, wheeling barrows or hand-trucks containing the cloth.
After the second washing and squeezing, the cloth is taken to a drying-stove, a room heated to a temperature of about 140°, and provided with bars and pegs on which the cloth is hung by the selvage till dry. Then, being made up into convenient bundles, it is taken by the hand-carts to a building where that series of processes is conducted which forms, perhaps, the most distinguishing feature in Turkey-red dyeing, and on which the beauty of the dye mainly depends. A vessel is supplied with a solution containing Gallipoli oil and some alkalies, which form a kind of soap, together with a third substance, more useful than agreeable, to give an "animalizing" power to the action of the solution. It is well known that silk and wool (both animal fibres) receive in general much more brilliant dyes than cotton or linen (vegetable fibres); and the present process is to impart to the cotton fibres a quality somewhat analogous to that of wool and silk. Two rollers dip into the trough containing this solution, and the cloth is drawn through the solution between the rollers, by which it becomes saturated.
Then ensues that part of the process wherein the bleach-field is brought into requisition. The cloth, which has acquired a yellowish tinge from the solution, is wheeled from the building to the open ar, where it is consigned to the care of a number of women. The cloth is in pieces of 28 yards each, and these pieces are laid down flat on the grass, side by side. If the weather be favourable, an exposure for two or three hours to the action of air produces the effect desired, which seems to be a kind of oxidation. All is bustle in the bleach-field when rain threatens: the women, with handkerchiefs on their heads, but nothing on the feet, hasten to gather up the cloth; and even if the weather be fine there is constant employment for them, since one batch of cloth is laid down as soon as another is removed. Sometimes as much as five thousand pieces, or a hundred and forty thousand yards, are lying on the field at one time.
The cloth is subjected a second time to the solution; then a second time spreat out on the grass, in the same way as before. A different solution is next employed, containing only the oil and alkali; and this is applied three or four times in the same way as before, the cloth being "grassed" after each application, and stove-dried after each immersion in liquor and after each grassing; so that the transfers to and fro become very numerous, and show how much time and assiduity are bestowed upon those processes. When the last of this recurring series is completed, the cloth is steeped for some hours in an alkali bath; and then, after being washed in the dash-wheel and squeezes in the press, it is drawn between rollers in a tub containing a solution of sumach (a substance much used in tanning thin leather, and in other processes where a binding quality is required). After being ddried, it is passed through a solution of alum, all of which contribute to the permanence and beauty of the dye afterwards to be applied.
The dye-house is a long building, containing a range of dye-vats, with horizontal shafts or frames worked by steam-power. The cloth is placed over these frames, and allowed to hang down into the dye-liquor, so that by rotating the frame, every part of the cloth becomes exposed equally to the action of the dye. The principal ingredients in the dye are madder and bullock's blood, mixed in such proportions, and heated to such a temperature, as are found best suited to the object in view. The alum, previously applied, causes the dye to adgere to the cloth, and the depth of tint greatly depends on the amount of alum combined; while the other preparatory ingredients aid in giving brilliancy to the dye. When the cloth has imbibed sufficient of the dye, it is washed in the dash-wheels, and then boiled for eight or ten hours in alkaline liquor, by which the colour is greatly heightened, or "cleared." Another wasing, another boiling, a third washing, and a final "clearing" in a solution of chlorine, terminate this very long and complex series of operations.
Most of the processes here noted (except perhaps the grassing) are analogous to others that occur in dyeing generally; but it is the great number of them, and the nicety required in their management, which constitute the remarkable features in Turkey-red dyeing.

[Yarn-wringing.]
The cloths, when thus dyed, is ready for further process, either to be printed for dresses, shawls, or handkerchiefs, or to go through that peculiar train of processes which constitutes bandana-work. but besides the cloth thus dyed, a vast quantity of cotton yarn is similarly dyed, to be employed afterwards by the weavers in this country, or for exportation to foreign parts. The general train of processes is similar in the two cases, with some minor exceptions, and the annexed cut shows the mode of effecting a process which is many times repeated in the course of the dyeing, viz. wringing the hanks of yarn after being immersed in liquids. The yarn-dyeing is carried on wholly in a separate set of buildings, with boilers, vats, troughs, &c. independent of those employed for the cloth dyeing; and instead of laying the hanks of yarn down upon the grass, they are hung upon short tin tubes, which tubes are rested on bars in the drying-ground.
Bandana Handkerchiefs.
Most persons probably know that particular style of pocket-handkerchief which obtains the name of bandana or bandanna. The term is an Indian one, and was applied by the natives of India, who first produced this kind of pattern, though in a manner very different from that followed in this country. The characteristics of a bandana handerchief are these: - a uniformly dyed ground of red, blue or purple; with groups of yellow or white spots. The durability of the colours was the quality which brought those handkerchiefs into favour; and for many years the British manufacturers failed in producing a good imitation. The Indians are said to adpot the following very rude and simple mode of procedure: - After having dyed the cloth, they tie up with bits of thread those small parts which are to remain white or yellow; while the rest of the surface is freely exposed to the operation of the dye. Whether this is or is not a correct description of the Indian process, it is certain that the first British "bandanas" were a poor imitation of those from the East. The first mode of accomplishing this was the ordinary process of calico-printing upon white cloth. But in this mode it was rarely if ever in the power of the manufacturer to ernder the colours sufficiently durable, especially the red; and therefore hte home-made article was never held in estimation by purchasers, most of whom consisted of that class of persons to whom durability was a great requisite. There was also a tax which at that time pressed heavily on printed cottons. These two circumstances led to the adpotion of a felicitously conceived plan for producing the effect by totally different means. It was, we believe, M. Koechlin, of Mülhausen, who, in 1810, discovered a mode of effecting this by the use of the chloride of lime; and in a few years afterwards, the "Bandana-gallery" at Messrs. Monteith's Works became one of the most celebrated manufacturing apartments in the kindfom, in reference to the use of this powerful chemical agent in the production of handkerchiefs, which now far excel their Indian prototypes.
To understand the mode of proceeding, it will be well to premise that the handkerchief, shawl, or piece of cloth, is dyed uniformly of one colour in every part, both surfaces being equally impregnated with the colour; and that the white spots have the colour completely removed from them by the action of chloride of lime. The operations therefore resolve themselves into two parts - the dyeing of the cloth, and the discharging of the colour. Generally speaking these bandana-handkerchieds are either red or blue: if the former, they are prepared by the Turkey-red dye processes just described; if blue, they are dyed with indigo in the usual manner. We will therefore suppose the dyeing to be completed, and the subsequent processes about to commence.

[Bandana Press.]
The Bandana-gallery at the Barrowfield Works is a room about one hundred feet in length, exhibiting through its centre a range of sixteen discharhing-presses, where the chemical action of the chloride of lime is exerted. These presses are about six or seven feet high, by four or five square; and have behind each of them a roller on which the dyed cloth is wound, and in front another which receives the cloth after the discharge. At one end of the gallery there is a kind of clock or dial, having a moveable index or hand, and certain figures round the edge. An inquiry into the object of this dial affords us the means of seeing with what admirable simplicity mechanical power is brought to the aid of chemical power in these operations. Each of the presses, such as the one here sketched, is a hydraulic press, in which a bed-plate is forced upwards with a power all but irresistible. The man who attends each press can turn on or off this power with the utmost ease, by placing his machine into or out of connection with the hydraulic engine where the force is generated. All the presses are alike connected with this engine, which is outside the gallery; and the dial indicates the force of pressure at any particular moment, by which the workmen are guided in their proceedings.
We will suppose that several pieces of red cloth for handkerchiefs are to have groups of circular white spots, such as are so frequently exhibited by ban[d]anahandkerchiefs. Fourteen pieces are laid flat and smooth one on another, as even and regular as possible. This compound piece is wound on the roller at the back of one of the presses; and a portion about a yard square, being unwound, is laid flat on a horizontal slab or bed in the machine. Then the workman, by turning the handle, brings the pressure to act from the hydraulic machine, and we see the bed-plate rise slowly till the cloth comes into contact with an upper horizontal plate; and such is the power of the machine that the cloth is pressed between the two plates with a pressure, of, we believe, from two to three hundred tons. Then the workman pours some liquor into a cell or trough above the upper plate; and after allowing it to remain a short time, first draws off the liquor by a small cock, and then removes the pressure, whereby the lower plate is made to sink. On now removing the cloth from the press we see - and a stranger can scarcely see it without astonishment - that the red surface of the cloth is diversified with groups of white spots; nay more, that every one of the fourteen pieces is similarly affected, whether lying at the top, the bottom, or othe middle of the heap. The red-dye that would have withstood all the wear and tear of ordinary usage and washing, is seen to be completely removed from the spots, leaving them quite white.
We naturally look to the horizontal plates, to see how the liquid is enabled to act upon the cloth. Both plates are made of lead, about half an inch in thickness, and both are performed exactly in the same way, and with holes of the same size as the spots to be produced on the cloth. The fourteen thicknesses of cloth have thus a perforated plate above them and another below, so that any liquid may be poured on the upper plate can percolate through the holes, then through the fourteen thicknesses of cloth, and lastly through the holes in the lower plate. But it is easy to conceive that unless the cloth were pressed very tightly between the plates, some of the liquid would spread laterally beyond the margins of the holes; and it is to rpevent this that the immense pressure is exerted. The liquid, which is a solution of "bleaching-powder," or chloride of lime, being poured on the upper surface of the upper plate, is allowed to remain there a few minutes, during which time it acts on the fourteen thicknesses of cloth at the places where the holes in the plates occur; but the intense pressure prevents it from spreading laterally to other parts of the cloth. Chloride of lime has the property of removing colours; and this it does so speedily, that it about ten or fifteen minures all the fourteen thicknesses of cloth are acted on. When one portion of the compound piece of cloth is thus finished, it is wound on the front roller, and another equal poertion is unwound from the back roller, to be treated in a similar manner. All the presses have equal powe, so that in twelve hours the whole series can discharge an enormous length of cloth, by the aid of four or five men only; for while one press is remaining still and in work, the man who attends it can go and supply other presses with their working materials.
Sometimes the spots on a blue or red bandana handkerchief are yellow, instead of white. In this case the chloride of lime is still the active agent by which the ground-colour is removed,but other arrangements are made whereby a chemical production of colour results. Two liquids are, in such an instance, poured on the upper plate: the one being a solution of chloride of lime, to abstract the ground-colour from the cloth; and the other some chemical agent which shall give a yellow colour to the white spots thus produced: or perhaps it may be that the white spots are not actually produced at all; that the ground-colour, the colouring-agent, and the chloride, all act simultaneously in the production of yellow spots at the part of the cloth not protected by the plates.
In other instances, again, there are both white and yellow spots combined in the same piece of cloth. This arrangement requires the use of very ingeniously constructed plates. There is, in the first place, in each plate, one series of holes for white spots and another series for yellow, and then an adjustment so that there shall be no channels of communication whatever between the one series and the other. By certain little ridges and dividing edges, all the holes of one series are brought into connection with a cell into which one kind of liquid is poured, while those of the other series are similarly placed in communication with another cell. Into one cell is poured the simple solution which is to produce the white spots; into the other the combined liquid for producing the yellow spots; and the two liquids percolate through the cloth independent of each other, each one working its own effect in its own peculiar way. In like manner the lower plate is so partitioned off as to afford separate egress to the two kinds of liquid.
The preparation of these plates is an important point in the series of operations. In one part of the Works is an apartment where the plates are wrought. The lead, cast for the purpose, is brought to as flat and smooth a surface as possible, and on each piece is drawn or sketched the positions of the various holes, correspondent to the spots in the pattern. With appropriate tools, fitted for working in lead, the holes are then cut out completely through the lead; and various little channels are made in that one which is to be the lower plate, as means of carrying off the liquid when it has effected its work. The holes in the upper plate are made to correspond stricly to those in the lower, whether the pattern is simply a group of spots, or whether it has a border. The nature of the process, it is easy to see, is consistent with the production of any fine or delicate lines in the pattern; and therefore very little more is attempted than the production of spots and lines or bold scrolls. The stock of plates form both a pnderous and expensive item in the Works; for each pait - that is, the two for each pattern - weigh about six hundred pounds; and as every new pattern requires a new pair of plates, there is a constant addition being made to these very weighty working materials, especially as the old ones are not melted up so long as there is a chance of using them again.
Many of the handkerchief and shawl pieces are treated in a mode somewhat midway between the usual process of calico-printing and that of bandana-work, or indeed combining something of the two. For instance, a piece of cloth being dyed some uniform colour, and then printed in certain parts with a chemical agent, is dipped into a vat of bleaching-liquid, which either instantly discharges the colour from the printed parts, or gives to them a wholly new colour, in either case imparting a pattern. This process is well calculated to surprise a spectator, for th eprinted part is almost wholly invisible until dipped into the discharging-vat; and hence what appears to be a piece of plain red or blue cloth comes out of the vat with a beautiful white or yellow pattern upon it. The writer has now before him a small piece of Turkey-red dyed cotton which he saw go through the following processes in the course of a few minutes: - A pattern was printed on one part with tartaric acid and nitrate of lead; another pattern was printed on another part with tartaric acid alone; a third pattern was printed on a third part with tartaric acid and Prussian blue: the cloth was then dipped into a chloride solution, by which the first printed portion became white; and then into a solution of bi-chromate of potash, by which the other printed portions became yellow and blue respectively: - thus exhibiting a very remarkable series of chemical actions among the substances employed.
As regard the patterns of handkerchiefs and similar articles of cotton, a glance round the warehouses of such an establishment as the one we have been describing will afford us some curious items of information. At the warehouse of Messrs. Monteith, in the heart of Glasgow; the first thing which strikes the eye is a very blaze of Turkey-red (if we may use such a term): on every side shelves, presses, and counters, in long ranges of rooms, are loaded with cotton goods, principally handkerchiefs and shawls, and all more or less exhibiting Turkey-red as the chief colour; for though all colours are employes, yet this one is the characteristic of the place, and gives a hue to the whole assemblage of goods. A little closer glance shows that the goods about to be exported to any particular country have a character about them different from those destined to other countries. This is a very curious point, and is exemplified on a large scale at this warehouse. The patterns for the homemarket are genrally unmeaninig, representing objects which never have existed and never will; curves, zig-zags, stripes, spots, all imaginable shapes, are combined together into patterns, which are pleasing, perhaps to the eye, but have no definite meaning. The Chinese market, on the other hand, required patterns in which natural onjects, such as birds and flowers, are depicted. The South American States demand the most gorgeous mixture of colours which the dyer and the printer can give; large masses of bright red, blue, and yellow - without any particular reference to the pattern - are called for. For the German market, pictorial subjects are prepared, without much reference to brilliancy of colours: copies from celebrated works of art by Overbeek, Cornelius, and other artists; and from pictures in the gallery of the Pinacothek at Munich, together with representations of cathedrals, abbeys, castles, and public buildings generally - were among the subjects which we saw represented on large bales of handkerchiefs for the German market. - In this way a sixpenny pocket-handkerchief may, if we choose to study it rightly, be made the means of giving us a little insight into national character and taste.
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This will be a fitting opportunity oto group together a few facts relating to the finishing, or what we may perhaps term the decorative departments of the cotton manufacture: first, in respect to the dyeing and printing in other countries; and secondly, in respect to the embroidering, or decoration by means of the needle.
The Hindoos had the skill of imparting bright colours and a glossy surface to their cottons in times when we knew very little even of the substance itself. Whether colours were given or not to the exquisitely fine muslins of India, or were confined to goods of coarser texture, it is certain that both the fineness and the beauty of colour were in early times regarded with mingled astonishment and admiration. Tavernier, when speaking of the calicuts or calicoes made in Calicut in India (whence they were named), said - "The while calicuts are woven in several places in Bengal and Mogulistan, and are carried to Raioxsary and Baroche to be whitened, because of the large meadows and plenty of lemons that grow thereabouts, for they are never so white as they should be till they are dipped in lemon-water. Some calicuts are made so fine, you can hardly feel them in your hand, and the thread when spun is scarcely discernible." He also says that some of the calico is so fine that when a man puts on a garment made of it, "his sin shal appear as plainly through it as he was quite naked." Various other modes were adopted, and have been adopted by later writers, to express the exquisite fineness of the Hindoo muslin. One states that "twenty-five ells of it put into a turban will not weigh four ounces." Mr. Ward days, "Muslins are made so exceedingly fine that four months are required to weave one piece, which sells at four or five hundred rupees. When this muslin is laid on the grass, and the dew has fallen on it, it is no longer discernible."Sir Joseph Banks described some Hindoo home-spun cotton yarn, of which one pound measured a hundred and fifteen miles in length. The late Mr. Mill thus accounted for the extraordinary skill of the Hindoos in these matters: - "It is a sedentary occupation, and hus in harmony with his predominant inclination. It required patience, of which he has an inexhaustible fund. It required little bodily exertion, of which he is always exceedingly sparing; and the finer the production the more slender the force which he is called upon to apply. But this is not all. The weak and delicate frame of the Hindoo is accompanied with an acuteness of external sense, particularly of touch, which is altogether unrivalled; and the flexibility of his fingers is equally remarkable."
The dyeing and beautifying of the woven cottons were equally objects of attention with the Hindoos. One of the early Poruguese adventurers speaks with admiration of the "painted" cottons produced by the Hindoos; and there are other writers who speak similarly of painted colours, the true character of which was not at that time understood. Thus, a Venetian merchant who travelled in India about 1560, speaks of the cotton-cloth "painted, which is a rare thing, because this kind of cloths shew us they were gilded with divers colours, and the more they be washed the livelier the colour will show." there was also a species of chintz then made, and extensively purchased in Europe; for in a pamphlet published in 1678, called "The ancient Trades decayed and repaired again," is the following complaint on the part of the woollen manufacturers: - "This trade is very much hindered by our own people, who do wear many foreign commodities instread of our own, as may be instanced in many particulars, viz. instead of green say, that was wont to tbe used for children's frocks, is now used painted and Indian-stained and striped calico; and instead of a perpetuana or shalloon to lyne men's coats with, is used sometimes a glazened calico." Defoe, too, said that "the general fansie of the people runs upon East India goods to that degree, that the chintz and painted calicoes, which before were only made use of for carpets, quilts, &c., and to clothe children and ordinary people, became now the dress of our ladies."
But the most curious account of the dyeing processes adopted by the Hindoos was that given by Father Coeurdoux, a missionary at Pondicherry. From this account it appears that the Indian cotton-cloths, when brought from the loom, were worn next to the skin by the dyer and his family, dyring a space of eight or ten days; after which they underwent several soakings in water with goats' dung, accompanied with frequent intermediate beatings, washings, and drying in the sunshine. They were next soaked for some time in a liquid formed of curdled buffalo's milk, and the astringent fruit of the yellow myrobalans. When the cloth was thoroughly impregnated with this mixture, it was taken out, squeezed, dried by exposure to the sunshine, rubbed and pressed. Then ensued a process of painting, by drawing devices on the cloth with a pencil. The liquors used for this purpose were not colours or pigments, but mordants. The first was a mordant of acetate of iron mixed with sour palm-wine, and thickened with rice-water. The mordant was applied to the figures or spots intended to become black. Then an aluminous mordant was applied to those parts which were to be red; it consisted of alum-water, coloured with powdered sappan-wood and thickened with gum. When these processes were finished, the cloth was exposed to the hottest sunshine, to dry the parts where the mordants had been applied; and then it was thoroughly soaked in large pots of water, to cleanse it from the loose or superfluous part of the mordants. A dye-vat was then prepared consisting of certain roots boiled in water; and in this dye the cloth was boiled for a long period. The parts which had received the alum mordant were made red; those to which the iron mordant had been applied became black; and the remainder, after being washed and bleached in the sun, became white.
In China the use of silk is much ore prevalent than that of cotton; but still it is stated by Staunton that blue-dyed cottons are worn very extensively among the humbler classes in China. That the Chinese are acquainted with the art of dyeing brilliant colours is too well known to need remark; but there has been an erroneous opinion prevalent ans to the production of the tint exhibited by nankeen cotton, once so great a favourite in this country. Doubt has often been expressed whether this tint was imparted to the woven cotton by a process of dyeing, or whether the fibres of the cotton had this tint in the first instance. Mr. Baines, who has devoted much attention to the history of the various departments of the cotton manufacture in different countries, has collected the following passages from different writers to show that nankeen cotton is in reality not dyed at all: - Sir George Staunton, who travelled with Lord Macartney's embassy through the province of Kiangnan, to which province the nankeen cotton is peculiar, distinctly states that the cotton is naturally "of the same yellow tinge which it preserves when sun and woven into cloth." He also says that "the nankeen cotton degenerates when transpanted to any other province." Mr. Baines then quotes the following statements from other authorities: - Sir G. T. Staunton (the son) has translated an extract from a Chinese herbal on the culture and uses of the cotton-plant, in which one of the varieties is described as a "dusky yellow cotton of very fine quality." Van Braam, who travelled in China with a Dutch embassy at the close of the last century, was commisioned by some European merchants to ascertain whether a deeper dye could not be made in China; but he reported that it was not dyed at all, the cotton itself being the same colour as the nankeen. The narrator of the voyage of the ship Amherst says, "Each family at Woosung appears to cultivate a small portion of ground with cotton, which I here saw of a light red colour. The nankeen cloth made from that required no dye."
A nation on the borders of the Caspian were described by one of the classic writers as being in the habit of painting figures of animals on their garments with a vegetable dye:- "They have trees whose leaves possess a most singular property: they heat them to powder, and then steep them in water: this forms a dye, with which they paint on their garmens figures of animals. The impression is so very strong, that it cannot be washed out; it appearts to be interwoven in the cloth, and wears as long as the garment." Pliny, too, in speaking of the Egyptians, describes a process evidently analogous to a rude kind of printing: "Garments are painted in Egypt in a wonderful manner, the white cloths being first smeared, not with colours, but with drugs, which absorb colour. These applications do not appear upon the cloths, but when the cloths are immersed in a caudron of hot dyeing liquor, they are taken out a moment after painted. It is wonderful that, although the dyeing liquor is only of one colour, the garment is dyed by it of several colours, according to the different properties of the drugs which had been applied to different parts. Nor can this dye be washed out. Thus the vat, which would doubtless have confused all the colours if the cloths had been immersed in a painted state, produces a diversity of colours out of one, and at the same time fixes them immoveably."
The Indian colours, or perhaps the mordants to fix the colours, seem to be laid on in India by a kind of pencil or reed; but Mr. Buckingham, while speaking of Mesopotamia, says that the natives print devices by means of small blocks four or six inches square. Other nations of the East were known to have done the same before the art was practised in England.
If we transfer our attention to the Western world, we find in like manner that the art of imparting showy colours to their woven goods was understood by the Americans when the Spaniards first saw them, although there is no evidence to show that the printing of cottons was practised by them. Clavigero says that among the presents send by Cortes to charles V. were "cotton mantles, some all white, other s mixed with white and black, or red, green, yellow, and blue; waistcoats, handkerchiefs, counterpanes, tapesty, and carpets of cotton;" and he also states that the colours of the cotton were extremely fine, as the Mexicans had both indigo and cochineal among their native dyes.
With regard to the state of these arts at the present day, it will be sufficient to remark that all rude nations, with some rare exceptions, possess a knowledge of the means to impart dyed colour to their garments; that in many parts of Asia there are still practised various modes of producing coloured devices on cloth, either by actual painting or by a rude kind of printing; that in the southern and eastern parts of Europe dyeing is caarried on, but scarcely aught that can be called calico-printing; that in the United States this is almost a new branch of industry, carried on to but a very limited extent; and that the countries which are alone distinguished for this beautiful art are Britain, France, Switzerland, Belgium, and some parts of Germany.
The other department of finishing processes, to which we alluded as offering fitting subjects to be briefly touched on here, is the tambouring or embroidery, which is effected by means of white or coloured threads. This presents a marked difference when brought into comparison etiher with the printing or the weaving methods of decoration: the one relating to the application of colouring substances to cloth; the other to the intermixture of differently coloured threads in the cloth; whereas tambouring relates to the tracing of a pattern by means of a line of thread after the cloth is woven.
Muslin is the chief kind of cotton goods to which this sort of decoration is applied; and the term "tambouring," by which the process is generally designated, seems to have been derived from the French name for a drum; the instrument or frame employed by the tambourers being formed something like a drum. In the simplest mode of conducting this process, the arrangements are as follows: - There are two circular hoops or drums, the outer one of which fits closely around the inner one. The muslin to be tamboured is stretched over the inner goop, and is kept in its place by the outer hoop being applied to it, a layer of cloth or flannel being so adjusted as to make the two hoops cling tightly one t o another. The apparatus, thus adjusted, is in a fit condition for the embroidress to work an ornamental pattern on the surface. In the most simple form of working, this apparatus is held merely between the knee and the chin of the work-woman; but a more convenient and less clumsy arrangement is to support the tambour on some kind of pedestal or stand, so as to leave the worker greater freedom of movement.
Such has been the common form where tambouring is carried on simply as a domestic employment. But then it became a branch of trade - that is, when the manufacturers of muslin made tamboured muslin one of the articles on sale in their warehouses - a more convenient and expeditious plan was adopted. It was found advantageous, where a piece of muslin or cloth was broad, and the pattern close and tedious, to employ a number of hands upon the same piece, in order that ti might be quickly finished and brought to market; and hence the common tambour-frame was adopted. This frame is a very simple piece of apparatus, consisting merely of two parallel rollers placed horizontally in a wooden stand, and furnished with ratchet-wheels and catches to stretch the cloth. The piece of cloth is wound, one end over or around one roller, and the other end round the other; leaving a portion tigghtly stretched in a horizontal position between the two. According to the size of the portion thus stretched horizontally, three, four, or six persons can work at it simultaneously, each one confining her attention to one particular spot until finished, and a new portion being then unwound from one of the rollers.
The general arrangement here described corresponds almost exactly with that of the "lace-running frame", represented at page 113 of our last year's volume, in the Supplement relating to the Nottingham Lace Manufacture: in both cases the object being to stretch out a piece of cloth or of net, so that the hand of the workwoman can be placed either above or below it. Indeed, if we compare the following cut with the one just alluded to, we shall see that the Eastern ladies adopt the use of an embroidering-frame bearing a very near resemblance to the English tambouring-frame.

[Men'seg, or Egyptian Embroidery-frame.]
This is a sketch which Mr. Lane gives in his "Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians," of the men'seg, or embroidery frame employed by the Ehyptian ladies in their private apartments. While speaking of the occupations of the upper grafes of female society in Cairo, he says: -"Their leisure hours are mostly spent in working with the needle: particularly in embroidering handkerchiefs, head-veils, &c., upon a frame called men'seg, with coloured silks and gold. Many women, even in the houses of the wealthy, replenish their private purses by ornamenting handkerchiefs and other things in this manner, and employeing a della'leh (or female broker) to take them to the market, or to other hhareems, for sale."
The tambouring of muslin in private society has been practised for many centuries, or at least an analogous processes on woven tissues of some kind or other: but the establishment of this as a regular branch of trade dates about the latter end of the last century. Glasgow has been and still is one of the head-quarters of the muslin manufacture; and the female population for many miles around that centre began to find employment in embroidering or tambouring the muslin, or some of it, there made. It has been computed that the tambouring of muslin, when at its greatest extension, employed, wholly or partially, at least twenty thousand females in the western parts of Scotland. Of these females many lived in the vicinity of Glasgow, while others were scattered through various parts of the country, and were supplied with works and money by agents in the employ of extensive manufacturers.
A curious change has been effected in this manner within the last few years. Although the Glasgow manufacturers still supply tamboured muslin in large quantity, yet it is in Ireland that a considerable portion of this muslin is tamboured, thus illustrating the remarkable interchanges which occur when industry is allowed to seek out its own market. Mr. Hall, while describing one of the northern counties of Ireland, as he found it two or three years ago, says, "Through the whole of this district, the barony of Ards and that of Castlereagh, a large proportion of the peasantry are employed in what is technically termed "flowering," embroidering muslin, chiefly for the Glasgow manufacturers, who supply the unwrought material, and pay fixed sums for the workmanship. The workers earn generally about three shillings a week" (about as much as the lace-runners of Nottingham), "a small sum, but as the majority of the inmates of a cottage are similarly employed, sufficient is obtained to produce the necessaries of life, and, indeed, some of its luxuries, for the interior of many of the cabins presented and aspect of cheerfulness and comfort. We found, upon inquiry from the sources best informed upon the subject, that the cumber of girls occupied upon this branch of industry may be thus stated: - Between two and three thousand girls, from five to twelve years of age, employed at veining, at weekly wages averaging from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 6d.; sewers employed at needlework for Belfast houses, between two and three thousand, at weekly wages averaging 3s.; about ten thousand employed as needleworkers to Glasgow houses, at weekly wages averaging 4s. Thus upwards of 3000s.[?] are paid weekly in the north of Ireland for the manufacture of needlework. Nearly the whole of the work sent from Glasgow to London, and other parts of England, is produced in this district. It is bleached in Scotland, and sold as "Scotch work." The manufacture is chiefly collars, cuffs, &c."
It is scarely necessary to descibe here the particular nature of the tambouring or embroidering process. It consists simply in drawing the loop of a thread successively through other loops, in such a manner as to allow the thread to stand out prominently on the muslin, to form a pattern, and yet to adhere durably to it. About forty years ago, the idea occured to Mr. Duncan, of Glasgow, to contrive a machine which should effect this tambouring in a very expeditious manner. He gave rather a melancholy picture of the condition of hte muslin-tambourers of Glasgow at that time, and seemed to think that the employment of a machine would place the occupation on a more healthy footing. He accordingly invented a machine full of highly ingenious arrangements, which he afterwards described in Brewster's "Edinburgh Cyclopædia." Many difficulties occurred in brining this machine into use; and although it was so comprehensive that forty tambouring needles could be superintended by one girl, yet from various causes it has never competed successfully with the common process of tambouring by hand. Mr. Duncan made a few remarkks as to the probable reason why this kind of machine should not succeed to any eminent degree; and as these, if correct, apply to other cases equally with this one, we quote them: - "Upon the whole, experience has very clearly evinced that large sums cannot be prudently expended upon machinery calculated for articles of mere fashion, and that the exercise of mechanical genius will always be better directed to provide for the actual wants and conveniences, than to gratify the whims and caprices of mankind. In a refined state of society, ornamental arts must always exist; but the establishments for producing these ought ever to be calculated to meet those frequent stagnations of demand to which they are peculiarly exposed. The power to drive this machine being very small, and even that capable of great reduction by judicious alterations, an expensive establishment of mill-work, moved by power, is not by any means inherently necessary for the business. The regularity of motion produced by machinery is indeed desirable; but the attendant expense is more than equivalent to any advantage gained by its use."
More recently, a hand-worked achine (if we may use the term) of very beautiful construction has been introduced; for the purpose of working ornaments on the surface of woven fabrics, on the principle of the pantograph or of the profile-machine. It is true, that this machine is applied chiefly to the embroidery of silk goods; but the principle is equally available to cottons, if ever and whenever circumstances shall seen to render surch a method desirable. The mode of proceeding is nearly as follows: - The machine consists of an upright frame, on the top of which is a moveable rod attached to one arm of a lever. The material which is to be embroidered passes over this rod to a roller beneath. On each side of this frame are carriages having a horizontal motion backwards and forwards; and these carriages are supplied with a system of clippers or pincers, and also of needles having eyes in the middle. The needles are threaded with the various coloured threads which are to be embroidered on the suspended piece of cloth. A workwoman, called a "tenter" (a very general name in factories for those who attend on any particular machines), sitting at one end of the machine, moves the long arm of the lever to a point marked in a copy of the pattern; and by this movement the other arm of the lever, from which the cloth is suspended, is made to give a corresponding motion. When this motion has taken place, one of the carriages moves forwards, and drives its needles into the suspended cloth; and these needles are immediately seized by the clippers in the carriage at the other side. Then, by a slight adjustment on the part of the "tenter," an analogous but reverse movement takes place: the "tenter" marks another point on the pattern; the suspended cloth makes another slight lateral movement; the back carriage thrusts the needles through the cloth; the front carriage seizes all these needles; and thus a second stage in the proceedings is completed. According to the number of needles employed, so is the number of repetitions of the pattern produced in the same piece at the same time. By passing each needle to and fro repeatedly through the cloth, a pattern is produced of any desired degree of complexity; yet so simple and regular is the action of the machine, that three females suffice for its management, one guiding the lever to the points marked on the pattern, and the other two directing the motion of the carriages.
[Bleaching-Ground - Monteith's Dye-Works, Glasgow.]
Were it not that the subject of calico-printing has already occupied our attention in the "Supplement" for June, 1843, the fine establishment of Messrs. Monteith, at Glasgow, would afford ample opportunity for illustrating many varieties of that beautiful process; but as the differences observable in such establishments, although very marked in the eyes of a manufacturer, are of no moment to those who wish merely to gain a slight insight into the general processes, we shall dispense with any further notice of calico-printing in general. THere are, however, two beautiful processes which stand out somewhat distinctly from calico-printing in general, and for which the Barrowfield Works of the above-named firm have acquired a very wide celebrity, viz. Turkey-red Dyeing and Bandana Handkerchief work: these processes, through the courtesy of the proprietors, we have been allowed to witness; and it is the object of the present article to describe them, as well as the general arrangement of the Works wherein they are conducted.
The Barrowfield Works occupy a very large area of ground at the eastern margin of Glasgow, bordered by the Clyde on one side, and by the excellent "Green" of Glasgow on another. The Londoners might well envy the Glasgow folks the possession of such a Green, for it is an invaluable agent in maintaining the health of the city. It consists of a large park or green, comprising one hundred and forty acres, having the river flowing along one margin, a series of houses along the opposite margin, Hutcheson Bridge at one end, and Rutherglen Bridge at the other. The inhabitants, aided zealously by Dr. Cleland, have successfully resisted all attempts to have this Green built upon; and there it remains, the property of all, with a few clusters of trees here and there, seats for the wearied, gravel walks for the ramblers, and a soft green carpet of sward on which the bare-legged damsels lay out their washed linen to dry, - for it is also a drying-ground open to all the laundresses who choose to avail themselves of it. Amid the smoke and bustle of iron-works, chemical-works, dye-works, cotton-mills, and engine-factories, it is no trifling advantage to have such an open spot.
Having walked across this "Green," then, to its eastern end (and it is a good thing that many of the workmen have to cross this Green on their way to work), we arrive at the gates of the Works, within which is large area of ground occupied partly by buildings, partly by yards and drying-grounds, and partly by green sward as a bleaching-ground. The buildings are in detached groups, and many of them are very large; some being used for dyeing cotton-cloth, some for Turkey-red yarn-dyeing, and others for bandana-work, printing, stoving, and a variety of other processes. The drying-grounds have ranges of poles on which yarn is hung to dry; while the extensive bleach-field requires nothing but a smooth, clean, grassy surface. It may be well at once to remark that this bleach-ground is appropriated wholly to certain stages of the Turkey-red dyeing, and does not relate to bleaching as commonly understood, - chloride of lime having wholly subverted the ancient mode of conducting such bleaching. Those portions of the establishment which are connected with the general processes of printing on calico we shall pass over for reasons just stated, and shall proceed at once to
Turkey-red Dyeing.
Most persons are familiar with the tint of red known as "Turkey-red;" but few would imagine how many have been the experiments as to the best mode of producing it, or the multiplicity of the distinct processes involved in the production. The vegetable substance called madder produces a red which is much employed under the name of "common madder red;" but the "Turkey-red," although produced likewise from madder, is infinitely more brilliant and beautiful, and requires great complexity of operations. The production of this fine colour was first known in India, from whence it travelled to the western part of Asia, and thence to Greece and Turkey. Just about a century ago, two French manufacturers brought some Greek dyers into France, and with their aid established Turkey-red Dye-Works at Rouen and in Languedoc. Mr. Wilson of Ainsworth, near Manchester, endeavoured, about the year 1770, to introduce this mode of dyeing into England; but for some reason or other it does not appear to have succeeded at that time. Some years afterwards a French gentleman, M. Papillon, joined Mr. Mackintosh in the establishment of a Turkey-red Dye-Work at Glasgow. There was an agreement entered into between these gentlemen and the Commissioners and Trustees for Manufactures in Scotland, to the effect that the Turkey-red dye process, at that time a secret in few hands, was to be published for the benefit of the public at the end of a certain term of years. This period expired in 1803; and the trustees then laid a minute account of the different processes before the public. Glasgow, however, having been the first to witness the successful prosecution of the process, continued to maintain its supremacy in that matter, and has ever since been the head-quarters in Britain for this art. Dr. Thomson has observed that "different individuals, possessed of both chemical skill and considerable sagacity, have studied different parts of this very complicated method of dyeing. The effects of each individual operation have been carefully investigated, and the whole has been somewhat shortened and simplified, though it still constitutes the most complicated process in the whole art of dyeing." The red dye was at first given only to the spun yarn; but among the subsequent improvements was that of dyeing the woven cotton itself. We may here remark, that M. Papillon, when he introduced the practice of this art at Glasgow, occupied that part of the Barrofield Works now appropriated to the yarn-dyeing.
Let us suppose that a quantity of cotton-cloth reaches the Works just in the state that it leaves the loom; that is, technically speaking, "in the grey." The first process it undergoes is to plunge it in what is termed a rot-steep; this is a very hot alkaline liquor, the continued action of which on the cloth for many hours removes the "dressing" of paste or size which the yarn had received before weaving, and which, if not removed, would prevent the fibres from imbibing the dye. The cloth having by this process become saturated with alkaline liquor, which must likewise be removed, it is comveyed to a long washing.-house containing a large number of "dash-wheels," similar to those which were sketched and described in the "Supplement" before alluted to. Into these dash-wheels the cloth is introduced, and there rotated with water till cleansed from the alkaline liquor and the dressing. But as the fibres have become saturated with water during this washing, and as this water must removed, the cloth is exposed to the action of a powerful Bramah press, by which a force of five hundred tons is brought to bear upon it, so as to press out the water.
Then ensues a remarkable series of processes, in which almost every one operation is repeated a great number of times, adding considerably to the complexity of the routine. The cloth is put into what is termed a "vomiting-boiler," that is, a boiler so constructed that the water is made to vomit upowards from a pipe, and then to fall fown on the cloth in the boiler, so as to act equally on the whole. The boiler contains a solution of soap and soda, which is allowed to act on the cloth for some hours, so as to prepare the fibres for the reception of liquids afterwards to be applied. From the vomiting-boilers the cloth is conveyed a second time to the wash-wheels, there to be washed clean from the soap and soda, and then a second time to the press, where it is squeezed almost dry. This repeated transfer of the cloth from one vessel to another, and from one part of the building to another, gives employment to a great number of men, who are running to and fro in all directions, wheeling barrows or hand-trucks containing the cloth.
After the second washing and squeezing, the cloth is taken to a drying-stove, a room heated to a temperature of about 140°, and provided with bars and pegs on which the cloth is hung by the selvage till dry. Then, being made up into convenient bundles, it is taken by the hand-carts to a building where that series of processes is conducted which forms, perhaps, the most distinguishing feature in Turkey-red dyeing, and on which the beauty of the dye mainly depends. A vessel is supplied with a solution containing Gallipoli oil and some alkalies, which form a kind of soap, together with a third substance, more useful than agreeable, to give an "animalizing" power to the action of the solution. It is well known that silk and wool (both animal fibres) receive in general much more brilliant dyes than cotton or linen (vegetable fibres); and the present process is to impart to the cotton fibres a quality somewhat analogous to that of wool and silk. Two rollers dip into the trough containing this solution, and the cloth is drawn through the solution between the rollers, by which it becomes saturated.
Then ensues that part of the process wherein the bleach-field is brought into requisition. The cloth, which has acquired a yellowish tinge from the solution, is wheeled from the building to the open ar, where it is consigned to the care of a number of women. The cloth is in pieces of 28 yards each, and these pieces are laid down flat on the grass, side by side. If the weather be favourable, an exposure for two or three hours to the action of air produces the effect desired, which seems to be a kind of oxidation. All is bustle in the bleach-field when rain threatens: the women, with handkerchiefs on their heads, but nothing on the feet, hasten to gather up the cloth; and even if the weather be fine there is constant employment for them, since one batch of cloth is laid down as soon as another is removed. Sometimes as much as five thousand pieces, or a hundred and forty thousand yards, are lying on the field at one time.
The cloth is subjected a second time to the solution; then a second time spreat out on the grass, in the same way as before. A different solution is next employed, containing only the oil and alkali; and this is applied three or four times in the same way as before, the cloth being "grassed" after each application, and stove-dried after each immersion in liquor and after each grassing; so that the transfers to and fro become very numerous, and show how much time and assiduity are bestowed upon those processes. When the last of this recurring series is completed, the cloth is steeped for some hours in an alkali bath; and then, after being washed in the dash-wheel and squeezes in the press, it is drawn between rollers in a tub containing a solution of sumach (a substance much used in tanning thin leather, and in other processes where a binding quality is required). After being ddried, it is passed through a solution of alum, all of which contribute to the permanence and beauty of the dye afterwards to be applied.
The dye-house is a long building, containing a range of dye-vats, with horizontal shafts or frames worked by steam-power. The cloth is placed over these frames, and allowed to hang down into the dye-liquor, so that by rotating the frame, every part of the cloth becomes exposed equally to the action of the dye. The principal ingredients in the dye are madder and bullock's blood, mixed in such proportions, and heated to such a temperature, as are found best suited to the object in view. The alum, previously applied, causes the dye to adgere to the cloth, and the depth of tint greatly depends on the amount of alum combined; while the other preparatory ingredients aid in giving brilliancy to the dye. When the cloth has imbibed sufficient of the dye, it is washed in the dash-wheels, and then boiled for eight or ten hours in alkaline liquor, by which the colour is greatly heightened, or "cleared." Another wasing, another boiling, a third washing, and a final "clearing" in a solution of chlorine, terminate this very long and complex series of operations.
Most of the processes here noted (except perhaps the grassing) are analogous to others that occur in dyeing generally; but it is the great number of them, and the nicety required in their management, which constitute the remarkable features in Turkey-red dyeing.
[Yarn-wringing.]
The cloths, when thus dyed, is ready for further process, either to be printed for dresses, shawls, or handkerchiefs, or to go through that peculiar train of processes which constitutes bandana-work. but besides the cloth thus dyed, a vast quantity of cotton yarn is similarly dyed, to be employed afterwards by the weavers in this country, or for exportation to foreign parts. The general train of processes is similar in the two cases, with some minor exceptions, and the annexed cut shows the mode of effecting a process which is many times repeated in the course of the dyeing, viz. wringing the hanks of yarn after being immersed in liquids. The yarn-dyeing is carried on wholly in a separate set of buildings, with boilers, vats, troughs, &c. independent of those employed for the cloth dyeing; and instead of laying the hanks of yarn down upon the grass, they are hung upon short tin tubes, which tubes are rested on bars in the drying-ground.
Bandana Handkerchiefs.
Most persons probably know that particular style of pocket-handkerchief which obtains the name of bandana or bandanna. The term is an Indian one, and was applied by the natives of India, who first produced this kind of pattern, though in a manner very different from that followed in this country. The characteristics of a bandana handerchief are these: - a uniformly dyed ground of red, blue or purple; with groups of yellow or white spots. The durability of the colours was the quality which brought those handkerchiefs into favour; and for many years the British manufacturers failed in producing a good imitation. The Indians are said to adpot the following very rude and simple mode of procedure: - After having dyed the cloth, they tie up with bits of thread those small parts which are to remain white or yellow; while the rest of the surface is freely exposed to the operation of the dye. Whether this is or is not a correct description of the Indian process, it is certain that the first British "bandanas" were a poor imitation of those from the East. The first mode of accomplishing this was the ordinary process of calico-printing upon white cloth. But in this mode it was rarely if ever in the power of the manufacturer to ernder the colours sufficiently durable, especially the red; and therefore hte home-made article was never held in estimation by purchasers, most of whom consisted of that class of persons to whom durability was a great requisite. There was also a tax which at that time pressed heavily on printed cottons. These two circumstances led to the adpotion of a felicitously conceived plan for producing the effect by totally different means. It was, we believe, M. Koechlin, of Mülhausen, who, in 1810, discovered a mode of effecting this by the use of the chloride of lime; and in a few years afterwards, the "Bandana-gallery" at Messrs. Monteith's Works became one of the most celebrated manufacturing apartments in the kindfom, in reference to the use of this powerful chemical agent in the production of handkerchiefs, which now far excel their Indian prototypes.
To understand the mode of proceeding, it will be well to premise that the handkerchief, shawl, or piece of cloth, is dyed uniformly of one colour in every part, both surfaces being equally impregnated with the colour; and that the white spots have the colour completely removed from them by the action of chloride of lime. The operations therefore resolve themselves into two parts - the dyeing of the cloth, and the discharging of the colour. Generally speaking these bandana-handkerchieds are either red or blue: if the former, they are prepared by the Turkey-red dye processes just described; if blue, they are dyed with indigo in the usual manner. We will therefore suppose the dyeing to be completed, and the subsequent processes about to commence.
[Bandana Press.]
The Bandana-gallery at the Barrowfield Works is a room about one hundred feet in length, exhibiting through its centre a range of sixteen discharhing-presses, where the chemical action of the chloride of lime is exerted. These presses are about six or seven feet high, by four or five square; and have behind each of them a roller on which the dyed cloth is wound, and in front another which receives the cloth after the discharge. At one end of the gallery there is a kind of clock or dial, having a moveable index or hand, and certain figures round the edge. An inquiry into the object of this dial affords us the means of seeing with what admirable simplicity mechanical power is brought to the aid of chemical power in these operations. Each of the presses, such as the one here sketched, is a hydraulic press, in which a bed-plate is forced upwards with a power all but irresistible. The man who attends each press can turn on or off this power with the utmost ease, by placing his machine into or out of connection with the hydraulic engine where the force is generated. All the presses are alike connected with this engine, which is outside the gallery; and the dial indicates the force of pressure at any particular moment, by which the workmen are guided in their proceedings.
We will suppose that several pieces of red cloth for handkerchiefs are to have groups of circular white spots, such as are so frequently exhibited by ban[d]anahandkerchiefs. Fourteen pieces are laid flat and smooth one on another, as even and regular as possible. This compound piece is wound on the roller at the back of one of the presses; and a portion about a yard square, being unwound, is laid flat on a horizontal slab or bed in the machine. Then the workman, by turning the handle, brings the pressure to act from the hydraulic machine, and we see the bed-plate rise slowly till the cloth comes into contact with an upper horizontal plate; and such is the power of the machine that the cloth is pressed between the two plates with a pressure, of, we believe, from two to three hundred tons. Then the workman pours some liquor into a cell or trough above the upper plate; and after allowing it to remain a short time, first draws off the liquor by a small cock, and then removes the pressure, whereby the lower plate is made to sink. On now removing the cloth from the press we see - and a stranger can scarcely see it without astonishment - that the red surface of the cloth is diversified with groups of white spots; nay more, that every one of the fourteen pieces is similarly affected, whether lying at the top, the bottom, or othe middle of the heap. The red-dye that would have withstood all the wear and tear of ordinary usage and washing, is seen to be completely removed from the spots, leaving them quite white.
We naturally look to the horizontal plates, to see how the liquid is enabled to act upon the cloth. Both plates are made of lead, about half an inch in thickness, and both are performed exactly in the same way, and with holes of the same size as the spots to be produced on the cloth. The fourteen thicknesses of cloth have thus a perforated plate above them and another below, so that any liquid may be poured on the upper plate can percolate through the holes, then through the fourteen thicknesses of cloth, and lastly through the holes in the lower plate. But it is easy to conceive that unless the cloth were pressed very tightly between the plates, some of the liquid would spread laterally beyond the margins of the holes; and it is to rpevent this that the immense pressure is exerted. The liquid, which is a solution of "bleaching-powder," or chloride of lime, being poured on the upper surface of the upper plate, is allowed to remain there a few minutes, during which time it acts on the fourteen thicknesses of cloth at the places where the holes in the plates occur; but the intense pressure prevents it from spreading laterally to other parts of the cloth. Chloride of lime has the property of removing colours; and this it does so speedily, that it about ten or fifteen minures all the fourteen thicknesses of cloth are acted on. When one portion of the compound piece of cloth is thus finished, it is wound on the front roller, and another equal poertion is unwound from the back roller, to be treated in a similar manner. All the presses have equal powe, so that in twelve hours the whole series can discharge an enormous length of cloth, by the aid of four or five men only; for while one press is remaining still and in work, the man who attends it can go and supply other presses with their working materials.
Sometimes the spots on a blue or red bandana handkerchief are yellow, instead of white. In this case the chloride of lime is still the active agent by which the ground-colour is removed,but other arrangements are made whereby a chemical production of colour results. Two liquids are, in such an instance, poured on the upper plate: the one being a solution of chloride of lime, to abstract the ground-colour from the cloth; and the other some chemical agent which shall give a yellow colour to the white spots thus produced: or perhaps it may be that the white spots are not actually produced at all; that the ground-colour, the colouring-agent, and the chloride, all act simultaneously in the production of yellow spots at the part of the cloth not protected by the plates.
In other instances, again, there are both white and yellow spots combined in the same piece of cloth. This arrangement requires the use of very ingeniously constructed plates. There is, in the first place, in each plate, one series of holes for white spots and another series for yellow, and then an adjustment so that there shall be no channels of communication whatever between the one series and the other. By certain little ridges and dividing edges, all the holes of one series are brought into connection with a cell into which one kind of liquid is poured, while those of the other series are similarly placed in communication with another cell. Into one cell is poured the simple solution which is to produce the white spots; into the other the combined liquid for producing the yellow spots; and the two liquids percolate through the cloth independent of each other, each one working its own effect in its own peculiar way. In like manner the lower plate is so partitioned off as to afford separate egress to the two kinds of liquid.
The preparation of these plates is an important point in the series of operations. In one part of the Works is an apartment where the plates are wrought. The lead, cast for the purpose, is brought to as flat and smooth a surface as possible, and on each piece is drawn or sketched the positions of the various holes, correspondent to the spots in the pattern. With appropriate tools, fitted for working in lead, the holes are then cut out completely through the lead; and various little channels are made in that one which is to be the lower plate, as means of carrying off the liquid when it has effected its work. The holes in the upper plate are made to correspond stricly to those in the lower, whether the pattern is simply a group of spots, or whether it has a border. The nature of the process, it is easy to see, is consistent with the production of any fine or delicate lines in the pattern; and therefore very little more is attempted than the production of spots and lines or bold scrolls. The stock of plates form both a pnderous and expensive item in the Works; for each pait - that is, the two for each pattern - weigh about six hundred pounds; and as every new pattern requires a new pair of plates, there is a constant addition being made to these very weighty working materials, especially as the old ones are not melted up so long as there is a chance of using them again.
Many of the handkerchief and shawl pieces are treated in a mode somewhat midway between the usual process of calico-printing and that of bandana-work, or indeed combining something of the two. For instance, a piece of cloth being dyed some uniform colour, and then printed in certain parts with a chemical agent, is dipped into a vat of bleaching-liquid, which either instantly discharges the colour from the printed parts, or gives to them a wholly new colour, in either case imparting a pattern. This process is well calculated to surprise a spectator, for th eprinted part is almost wholly invisible until dipped into the discharging-vat; and hence what appears to be a piece of plain red or blue cloth comes out of the vat with a beautiful white or yellow pattern upon it. The writer has now before him a small piece of Turkey-red dyed cotton which he saw go through the following processes in the course of a few minutes: - A pattern was printed on one part with tartaric acid and nitrate of lead; another pattern was printed on another part with tartaric acid alone; a third pattern was printed on a third part with tartaric acid and Prussian blue: the cloth was then dipped into a chloride solution, by which the first printed portion became white; and then into a solution of bi-chromate of potash, by which the other printed portions became yellow and blue respectively: - thus exhibiting a very remarkable series of chemical actions among the substances employed.
As regard the patterns of handkerchiefs and similar articles of cotton, a glance round the warehouses of such an establishment as the one we have been describing will afford us some curious items of information. At the warehouse of Messrs. Monteith, in the heart of Glasgow; the first thing which strikes the eye is a very blaze of Turkey-red (if we may use such a term): on every side shelves, presses, and counters, in long ranges of rooms, are loaded with cotton goods, principally handkerchiefs and shawls, and all more or less exhibiting Turkey-red as the chief colour; for though all colours are employes, yet this one is the characteristic of the place, and gives a hue to the whole assemblage of goods. A little closer glance shows that the goods about to be exported to any particular country have a character about them different from those destined to other countries. This is a very curious point, and is exemplified on a large scale at this warehouse. The patterns for the homemarket are genrally unmeaninig, representing objects which never have existed and never will; curves, zig-zags, stripes, spots, all imaginable shapes, are combined together into patterns, which are pleasing, perhaps to the eye, but have no definite meaning. The Chinese market, on the other hand, required patterns in which natural onjects, such as birds and flowers, are depicted. The South American States demand the most gorgeous mixture of colours which the dyer and the printer can give; large masses of bright red, blue, and yellow - without any particular reference to the pattern - are called for. For the German market, pictorial subjects are prepared, without much reference to brilliancy of colours: copies from celebrated works of art by Overbeek, Cornelius, and other artists; and from pictures in the gallery of the Pinacothek at Munich, together with representations of cathedrals, abbeys, castles, and public buildings generally - were among the subjects which we saw represented on large bales of handkerchiefs for the German market. - In this way a sixpenny pocket-handkerchief may, if we choose to study it rightly, be made the means of giving us a little insight into national character and taste.
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This will be a fitting opportunity oto group together a few facts relating to the finishing, or what we may perhaps term the decorative departments of the cotton manufacture: first, in respect to the dyeing and printing in other countries; and secondly, in respect to the embroidering, or decoration by means of the needle.
The Hindoos had the skill of imparting bright colours and a glossy surface to their cottons in times when we knew very little even of the substance itself. Whether colours were given or not to the exquisitely fine muslins of India, or were confined to goods of coarser texture, it is certain that both the fineness and the beauty of colour were in early times regarded with mingled astonishment and admiration. Tavernier, when speaking of the calicuts or calicoes made in Calicut in India (whence they were named), said - "The while calicuts are woven in several places in Bengal and Mogulistan, and are carried to Raioxsary and Baroche to be whitened, because of the large meadows and plenty of lemons that grow thereabouts, for they are never so white as they should be till they are dipped in lemon-water. Some calicuts are made so fine, you can hardly feel them in your hand, and the thread when spun is scarcely discernible." He also says that some of the calico is so fine that when a man puts on a garment made of it, "his sin shal appear as plainly through it as he was quite naked." Various other modes were adopted, and have been adopted by later writers, to express the exquisite fineness of the Hindoo muslin. One states that "twenty-five ells of it put into a turban will not weigh four ounces." Mr. Ward days, "Muslins are made so exceedingly fine that four months are required to weave one piece, which sells at four or five hundred rupees. When this muslin is laid on the grass, and the dew has fallen on it, it is no longer discernible."Sir Joseph Banks described some Hindoo home-spun cotton yarn, of which one pound measured a hundred and fifteen miles in length. The late Mr. Mill thus accounted for the extraordinary skill of the Hindoos in these matters: - "It is a sedentary occupation, and hus in harmony with his predominant inclination. It required patience, of which he has an inexhaustible fund. It required little bodily exertion, of which he is always exceedingly sparing; and the finer the production the more slender the force which he is called upon to apply. But this is not all. The weak and delicate frame of the Hindoo is accompanied with an acuteness of external sense, particularly of touch, which is altogether unrivalled; and the flexibility of his fingers is equally remarkable."
The dyeing and beautifying of the woven cottons were equally objects of attention with the Hindoos. One of the early Poruguese adventurers speaks with admiration of the "painted" cottons produced by the Hindoos; and there are other writers who speak similarly of painted colours, the true character of which was not at that time understood. Thus, a Venetian merchant who travelled in India about 1560, speaks of the cotton-cloth "painted, which is a rare thing, because this kind of cloths shew us they were gilded with divers colours, and the more they be washed the livelier the colour will show." there was also a species of chintz then made, and extensively purchased in Europe; for in a pamphlet published in 1678, called "The ancient Trades decayed and repaired again," is the following complaint on the part of the woollen manufacturers: - "This trade is very much hindered by our own people, who do wear many foreign commodities instread of our own, as may be instanced in many particulars, viz. instead of green say, that was wont to tbe used for children's frocks, is now used painted and Indian-stained and striped calico; and instead of a perpetuana or shalloon to lyne men's coats with, is used sometimes a glazened calico." Defoe, too, said that "the general fansie of the people runs upon East India goods to that degree, that the chintz and painted calicoes, which before were only made use of for carpets, quilts, &c., and to clothe children and ordinary people, became now the dress of our ladies."
But the most curious account of the dyeing processes adopted by the Hindoos was that given by Father Coeurdoux, a missionary at Pondicherry. From this account it appears that the Indian cotton-cloths, when brought from the loom, were worn next to the skin by the dyer and his family, dyring a space of eight or ten days; after which they underwent several soakings in water with goats' dung, accompanied with frequent intermediate beatings, washings, and drying in the sunshine. They were next soaked for some time in a liquid formed of curdled buffalo's milk, and the astringent fruit of the yellow myrobalans. When the cloth was thoroughly impregnated with this mixture, it was taken out, squeezed, dried by exposure to the sunshine, rubbed and pressed. Then ensued a process of painting, by drawing devices on the cloth with a pencil. The liquors used for this purpose were not colours or pigments, but mordants. The first was a mordant of acetate of iron mixed with sour palm-wine, and thickened with rice-water. The mordant was applied to the figures or spots intended to become black. Then an aluminous mordant was applied to those parts which were to be red; it consisted of alum-water, coloured with powdered sappan-wood and thickened with gum. When these processes were finished, the cloth was exposed to the hottest sunshine, to dry the parts where the mordants had been applied; and then it was thoroughly soaked in large pots of water, to cleanse it from the loose or superfluous part of the mordants. A dye-vat was then prepared consisting of certain roots boiled in water; and in this dye the cloth was boiled for a long period. The parts which had received the alum mordant were made red; those to which the iron mordant had been applied became black; and the remainder, after being washed and bleached in the sun, became white.
In China the use of silk is much ore prevalent than that of cotton; but still it is stated by Staunton that blue-dyed cottons are worn very extensively among the humbler classes in China. That the Chinese are acquainted with the art of dyeing brilliant colours is too well known to need remark; but there has been an erroneous opinion prevalent ans to the production of the tint exhibited by nankeen cotton, once so great a favourite in this country. Doubt has often been expressed whether this tint was imparted to the woven cotton by a process of dyeing, or whether the fibres of the cotton had this tint in the first instance. Mr. Baines, who has devoted much attention to the history of the various departments of the cotton manufacture in different countries, has collected the following passages from different writers to show that nankeen cotton is in reality not dyed at all: - Sir George Staunton, who travelled with Lord Macartney's embassy through the province of Kiangnan, to which province the nankeen cotton is peculiar, distinctly states that the cotton is naturally "of the same yellow tinge which it preserves when sun and woven into cloth." He also says that "the nankeen cotton degenerates when transpanted to any other province." Mr. Baines then quotes the following statements from other authorities: - Sir G. T. Staunton (the son) has translated an extract from a Chinese herbal on the culture and uses of the cotton-plant, in which one of the varieties is described as a "dusky yellow cotton of very fine quality." Van Braam, who travelled in China with a Dutch embassy at the close of the last century, was commisioned by some European merchants to ascertain whether a deeper dye could not be made in China; but he reported that it was not dyed at all, the cotton itself being the same colour as the nankeen. The narrator of the voyage of the ship Amherst says, "Each family at Woosung appears to cultivate a small portion of ground with cotton, which I here saw of a light red colour. The nankeen cloth made from that required no dye."
A nation on the borders of the Caspian were described by one of the classic writers as being in the habit of painting figures of animals on their garments with a vegetable dye:- "They have trees whose leaves possess a most singular property: they heat them to powder, and then steep them in water: this forms a dye, with which they paint on their garmens figures of animals. The impression is so very strong, that it cannot be washed out; it appearts to be interwoven in the cloth, and wears as long as the garment." Pliny, too, in speaking of the Egyptians, describes a process evidently analogous to a rude kind of printing: "Garments are painted in Egypt in a wonderful manner, the white cloths being first smeared, not with colours, but with drugs, which absorb colour. These applications do not appear upon the cloths, but when the cloths are immersed in a caudron of hot dyeing liquor, they are taken out a moment after painted. It is wonderful that, although the dyeing liquor is only of one colour, the garment is dyed by it of several colours, according to the different properties of the drugs which had been applied to different parts. Nor can this dye be washed out. Thus the vat, which would doubtless have confused all the colours if the cloths had been immersed in a painted state, produces a diversity of colours out of one, and at the same time fixes them immoveably."
The Indian colours, or perhaps the mordants to fix the colours, seem to be laid on in India by a kind of pencil or reed; but Mr. Buckingham, while speaking of Mesopotamia, says that the natives print devices by means of small blocks four or six inches square. Other nations of the East were known to have done the same before the art was practised in England.
If we transfer our attention to the Western world, we find in like manner that the art of imparting showy colours to their woven goods was understood by the Americans when the Spaniards first saw them, although there is no evidence to show that the printing of cottons was practised by them. Clavigero says that among the presents send by Cortes to charles V. were "cotton mantles, some all white, other s mixed with white and black, or red, green, yellow, and blue; waistcoats, handkerchiefs, counterpanes, tapesty, and carpets of cotton;" and he also states that the colours of the cotton were extremely fine, as the Mexicans had both indigo and cochineal among their native dyes.
With regard to the state of these arts at the present day, it will be sufficient to remark that all rude nations, with some rare exceptions, possess a knowledge of the means to impart dyed colour to their garments; that in many parts of Asia there are still practised various modes of producing coloured devices on cloth, either by actual painting or by a rude kind of printing; that in the southern and eastern parts of Europe dyeing is caarried on, but scarcely aught that can be called calico-printing; that in the United States this is almost a new branch of industry, carried on to but a very limited extent; and that the countries which are alone distinguished for this beautiful art are Britain, France, Switzerland, Belgium, and some parts of Germany.
The other department of finishing processes, to which we alluded as offering fitting subjects to be briefly touched on here, is the tambouring or embroidery, which is effected by means of white or coloured threads. This presents a marked difference when brought into comparison etiher with the printing or the weaving methods of decoration: the one relating to the application of colouring substances to cloth; the other to the intermixture of differently coloured threads in the cloth; whereas tambouring relates to the tracing of a pattern by means of a line of thread after the cloth is woven.
Muslin is the chief kind of cotton goods to which this sort of decoration is applied; and the term "tambouring," by which the process is generally designated, seems to have been derived from the French name for a drum; the instrument or frame employed by the tambourers being formed something like a drum. In the simplest mode of conducting this process, the arrangements are as follows: - There are two circular hoops or drums, the outer one of which fits closely around the inner one. The muslin to be tamboured is stretched over the inner goop, and is kept in its place by the outer hoop being applied to it, a layer of cloth or flannel being so adjusted as to make the two hoops cling tightly one t o another. The apparatus, thus adjusted, is in a fit condition for the embroidress to work an ornamental pattern on the surface. In the most simple form of working, this apparatus is held merely between the knee and the chin of the work-woman; but a more convenient and less clumsy arrangement is to support the tambour on some kind of pedestal or stand, so as to leave the worker greater freedom of movement.
Such has been the common form where tambouring is carried on simply as a domestic employment. But then it became a branch of trade - that is, when the manufacturers of muslin made tamboured muslin one of the articles on sale in their warehouses - a more convenient and expeditious plan was adopted. It was found advantageous, where a piece of muslin or cloth was broad, and the pattern close and tedious, to employ a number of hands upon the same piece, in order that ti might be quickly finished and brought to market; and hence the common tambour-frame was adopted. This frame is a very simple piece of apparatus, consisting merely of two parallel rollers placed horizontally in a wooden stand, and furnished with ratchet-wheels and catches to stretch the cloth. The piece of cloth is wound, one end over or around one roller, and the other end round the other; leaving a portion tigghtly stretched in a horizontal position between the two. According to the size of the portion thus stretched horizontally, three, four, or six persons can work at it simultaneously, each one confining her attention to one particular spot until finished, and a new portion being then unwound from one of the rollers.
The general arrangement here described corresponds almost exactly with that of the "lace-running frame", represented at page 113 of our last year's volume, in the Supplement relating to the Nottingham Lace Manufacture: in both cases the object being to stretch out a piece of cloth or of net, so that the hand of the workwoman can be placed either above or below it. Indeed, if we compare the following cut with the one just alluded to, we shall see that the Eastern ladies adopt the use of an embroidering-frame bearing a very near resemblance to the English tambouring-frame.
[Men'seg, or Egyptian Embroidery-frame.]
This is a sketch which Mr. Lane gives in his "Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians," of the men'seg, or embroidery frame employed by the Ehyptian ladies in their private apartments. While speaking of the occupations of the upper grafes of female society in Cairo, he says: -"Their leisure hours are mostly spent in working with the needle: particularly in embroidering handkerchiefs, head-veils, &c., upon a frame called men'seg, with coloured silks and gold. Many women, even in the houses of the wealthy, replenish their private purses by ornamenting handkerchiefs and other things in this manner, and employeing a della'leh (or female broker) to take them to the market, or to other hhareems, for sale."
The tambouring of muslin in private society has been practised for many centuries, or at least an analogous processes on woven tissues of some kind or other: but the establishment of this as a regular branch of trade dates about the latter end of the last century. Glasgow has been and still is one of the head-quarters of the muslin manufacture; and the female population for many miles around that centre began to find employment in embroidering or tambouring the muslin, or some of it, there made. It has been computed that the tambouring of muslin, when at its greatest extension, employed, wholly or partially, at least twenty thousand females in the western parts of Scotland. Of these females many lived in the vicinity of Glasgow, while others were scattered through various parts of the country, and were supplied with works and money by agents in the employ of extensive manufacturers.
A curious change has been effected in this manner within the last few years. Although the Glasgow manufacturers still supply tamboured muslin in large quantity, yet it is in Ireland that a considerable portion of this muslin is tamboured, thus illustrating the remarkable interchanges which occur when industry is allowed to seek out its own market. Mr. Hall, while describing one of the northern counties of Ireland, as he found it two or three years ago, says, "Through the whole of this district, the barony of Ards and that of Castlereagh, a large proportion of the peasantry are employed in what is technically termed "flowering," embroidering muslin, chiefly for the Glasgow manufacturers, who supply the unwrought material, and pay fixed sums for the workmanship. The workers earn generally about three shillings a week" (about as much as the lace-runners of Nottingham), "a small sum, but as the majority of the inmates of a cottage are similarly employed, sufficient is obtained to produce the necessaries of life, and, indeed, some of its luxuries, for the interior of many of the cabins presented and aspect of cheerfulness and comfort. We found, upon inquiry from the sources best informed upon the subject, that the cumber of girls occupied upon this branch of industry may be thus stated: - Between two and three thousand girls, from five to twelve years of age, employed at veining, at weekly wages averaging from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 6d.; sewers employed at needlework for Belfast houses, between two and three thousand, at weekly wages averaging 3s.; about ten thousand employed as needleworkers to Glasgow houses, at weekly wages averaging 4s. Thus upwards of 3000s.[?] are paid weekly in the north of Ireland for the manufacture of needlework. Nearly the whole of the work sent from Glasgow to London, and other parts of England, is produced in this district. It is bleached in Scotland, and sold as "Scotch work." The manufacture is chiefly collars, cuffs, &c."
It is scarely necessary to descibe here the particular nature of the tambouring or embroidering process. It consists simply in drawing the loop of a thread successively through other loops, in such a manner as to allow the thread to stand out prominently on the muslin, to form a pattern, and yet to adhere durably to it. About forty years ago, the idea occured to Mr. Duncan, of Glasgow, to contrive a machine which should effect this tambouring in a very expeditious manner. He gave rather a melancholy picture of the condition of hte muslin-tambourers of Glasgow at that time, and seemed to think that the employment of a machine would place the occupation on a more healthy footing. He accordingly invented a machine full of highly ingenious arrangements, which he afterwards described in Brewster's "Edinburgh Cyclopædia." Many difficulties occurred in brining this machine into use; and although it was so comprehensive that forty tambouring needles could be superintended by one girl, yet from various causes it has never competed successfully with the common process of tambouring by hand. Mr. Duncan made a few remarkks as to the probable reason why this kind of machine should not succeed to any eminent degree; and as these, if correct, apply to other cases equally with this one, we quote them: - "Upon the whole, experience has very clearly evinced that large sums cannot be prudently expended upon machinery calculated for articles of mere fashion, and that the exercise of mechanical genius will always be better directed to provide for the actual wants and conveniences, than to gratify the whims and caprices of mankind. In a refined state of society, ornamental arts must always exist; but the establishments for producing these ought ever to be calculated to meet those frequent stagnations of demand to which they are peculiarly exposed. The power to drive this machine being very small, and even that capable of great reduction by judicious alterations, an expensive establishment of mill-work, moved by power, is not by any means inherently necessary for the business. The regularity of motion produced by machinery is indeed desirable; but the attendant expense is more than equivalent to any advantage gained by its use."
More recently, a hand-worked achine (if we may use the term) of very beautiful construction has been introduced; for the purpose of working ornaments on the surface of woven fabrics, on the principle of the pantograph or of the profile-machine. It is true, that this machine is applied chiefly to the embroidery of silk goods; but the principle is equally available to cottons, if ever and whenever circumstances shall seen to render surch a method desirable. The mode of proceeding is nearly as follows: - The machine consists of an upright frame, on the top of which is a moveable rod attached to one arm of a lever. The material which is to be embroidered passes over this rod to a roller beneath. On each side of this frame are carriages having a horizontal motion backwards and forwards; and these carriages are supplied with a system of clippers or pincers, and also of needles having eyes in the middle. The needles are threaded with the various coloured threads which are to be embroidered on the suspended piece of cloth. A workwoman, called a "tenter" (a very general name in factories for those who attend on any particular machines), sitting at one end of the machine, moves the long arm of the lever to a point marked in a copy of the pattern; and by this movement the other arm of the lever, from which the cloth is suspended, is made to give a corresponding motion. When this motion has taken place, one of the carriages moves forwards, and drives its needles into the suspended cloth; and these needles are immediately seized by the clippers in the carriage at the other side. Then, by a slight adjustment on the part of the "tenter," an analogous but reverse movement takes place: the "tenter" marks another point on the pattern; the suspended cloth makes another slight lateral movement; the back carriage thrusts the needles through the cloth; the front carriage seizes all these needles; and thus a second stage in the proceedings is completed. According to the number of needles employed, so is the number of repetitions of the pattern produced in the same piece at the same time. By passing each needle to and fro repeatedly through the cloth, a pattern is produced of any desired degree of complexity; yet so simple and regular is the action of the machine, that three females suffice for its management, one guiding the lever to the points marked on the pattern, and the other two directing the motion of the carriages.