Gunnar Suolahti: Suomen pappilat 1700-luvulla. 1912.
VII Savupirtistä kartanoon
[osa luvusta]
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38. K. Rhamm, Urzeitliche Bauernhöfe in germanisch-slawischem Waldgebiet I, Braunschweig 1908, siv. 591 ja seur. —Carl Linne, Skånska Resa, Tukholma 1751, siv. 36 ja seur. —A. O. Heikel, Rakennukset tscheremisseillä, mordvalaisilla, virolaisilla ja suomalaisilla, Helsinki 1887. siv. 226 ja — U. T. Sirelius, Über die primitiven wohnungen der finnischen und ob-ugrischen völker, Finnisch-ugrische Forschungen XI, siv. 72 ja seur.
39. Andreas Neocleanderin perinnönjakokirja v. Rauman kaupunginarkisto.
40. Piikkiön pappilan inventariluettelo 2 p. toukok. 1652. Piikkiön kirkonarkisto.
41. Iin pappilan katselmuskirja v. 1675. Iin kirkonarkisto. — Joroisten pappilan katselmuskirja, heinäk. (?) 1731. Suomen valtioarkisto. — Leppävirtain 30—31 p. heinäk., Iisalmen 11—13 p. elok. 1731. Suomen valtioarkisto.
42. Saara Wacklin, Satanen muistelmia Pohjanmaalta, suomensi Helmi Setälä, Kuopio 1900, siv.Niinpä oli niiltä ajoilta asti, jolloin savu-uuni ensinnä tuli käytäntöön ja tulisija siirtyi oviseinämälle, vastakkainen päätyseinä joutunut arvokkaimmaksi osaksi, jossa pitkä pöytä kunniapaikkoineen isäntää ja vieraita varten sijaitsi. Keskitupa taas oli lasten ja palkollisten oleskelupaikkana, mutta oviseinusta uuninympärystöineen oli varattu taloustöiden paikaksi ja täällä oli elukoillakin kauan ollut tyyssijansa. Tämän tuvan jaotuksen, joka näyttää aikoinaan olleen yleinen Skandinaviassa ja pääpiirteiltään samanlainen Suomessakin, tapaa yksityiskohtia myöten vakiintuneena siinä vanhassa smoolantilaistuvassa, jonka Linné näki ja kuvasi v. 1746. Katto-orret täällä erottivat toisistaan nuo tuvan kolme pääosaa. Pohjoisella peränurkalla oli pöydän päässä kunniasija, toisella puolella nurkkakaappi, toisella niinikään kaappi penkillä, eteläisellä peränurkalla taas oli isäntäväen vuode. Tuvan pitkiäseiniä myöten kulki kahdet penkit, pohjoispenkki miesten istuttavaksi ja vastapäätä eteläpenkki, naisten istumasija. Oviseinämällä uunin ja oven välissä piti emäntä patojansa, sitäpaitsi oli siellä astiahylly, kun taas toisessa ovipielessä oli miesten työkaluja sekä myös vasikkapenkki, johon vasikat kylmimmäksi talviajaksi kytkettiin. Eikä ollut tästä järjestelystä kokonaan eroava vanha suomalainen tuvansisustus, pöytä kun tavallisesti oli peräseinällä vinosti uunia vastapäätä, toinen penkeistä perä-, toinen sivuseinämällä sekä vihdoin uunin luona karsina, jossa taloustöitä tehtiin ja jossa olivat eläimet.38
Myöskin pappilan arkituvan sisusta mahtoi muistuttaa tätä. Rauman pappilan pikkutuvassa oli v. 1662 niinmuodoin huonekaluina kaappi, 2½ kyynärän pituinen pöytä, kaksi maalattua nojatuolia, pystyvuode ilman katosta sekä mahdollisesti, vaikka niitä ei erikseen mainita, pitkät penkit; uudessa linnatuvassa penkit, 7 kyynärän pituinen pöytä, kaappi ja puusepän tekemä laskospenkki; eteisessä penkit, 2½ kyynärän pöytä sekä tuoli, lisäksi sitten toisessa aitassa rikkein vuode ja toisessa pöytä — kun lähde, joka tätä kertoo, luettelee sekä kiinteimistön että irtaimiston, voinee pitää varmana, että muunlaista sisustusta ei ensinkään pappilassa ollut. 39 Kymmentä vuotta aikaisemmin mainitaan taas kiinteitä huonekaluja Piikkiön pappilassa: uudessa tuvassa kaksi puusepän tekemää seinään kiinnitettyä penkkiä, piispantuvassa niinikään, linnatuvassa ja leivintuvassa kummassakin »talonpoikaispenkkejä» seinämillä, linnatuvassa sitäpaitsi kaksi pöytää ja istuin (säte), leivintuvassa pöytä ja istuin ja vihdoin kellarituvassa »vanha vuode seinään kiinnitettynä ovennurjassa, samoin pöytä ja penkkien asemesta seinään liitettyjä lautoja, mutta ei mitään tuolia eikä istuinta (säte).»40 Iin pappilassa oli sisustus v. 1675 täydelleen samanlainen: kaksi kiintonaista penkkiä luetellaan joka tuvassa, yksi tahi pari vuodetta, pöytä, ja tupakamarissa paitsi penkkiä myöskin lautashylly. Vielä 17 sataluvun alkupuoliskolla olivat samat kiinteät huonekalut pappiloissa yleisiä; mainittakoon, että esm. Joroisten pappilan arkituvassa oli v. 1731 kaksi kiintonaista penkkiä, harmaakiviuunin ympärillä »aidake (skrank) ynnä irtonainen penkki pitkittäin», sekä puusepän tekemä katosvuode. Huonekalujen suuruudesta saa käsityksen, kun kuulee että mainittuna vuonna Leppävirtain pappilan arkituvan kaksi penkkiä olivat 8 ¾ kyynärän pituisia, ja Iisalmella samaiset penkit 13 ¼ kyynärän mittaisia sekä edelleen Joroisten pappilan leivintuvan pöytä 4 ¾ kyynärää pitkä ja 1 ¼ leveä. Kaikki siis viittaa siihen, että pappilatuvan sisusta pääpiirteiltään pysyi samana kuin talonpoikaistuvan. Pappilassa vain täydensi huonekalustoa suuri ruokakaappi, vaatekaappi ja n.s. yölaatikko, joka ainakin 16 ja 17 satalukujen vaihteessa oli vuoteitten äärellä tarvevaatteitten y.m. säilytyspaikkana. Lisäksi tuli joukko arkkuja ja matkakirstuja seinävierillä, joissa. talon kalleuksia, vaatteita ja ruokatavaroita säilytettiin, ja jotka samalla kelpasivat istuinpaikoiksikin. Oli kuin asujamet eivät olisi asumuksiinsa sittenkään koteutuneet: irtaimisto oli sullottu säilöihin kuin matkalle lähdettäessä ja vain juhlapäiviksi otettiin niistä monenlaiset kulta- ja hopeaesineet sekä vaatteet esille. Lieneekö sitten tällainen sisustamis- ja asumistapa johtunut siitä, että tulipalon tahi muun äkillisen vaaran sattuessa haluttiin arvokkain omaisuus saada varmasti pelastetuksi, vaiko tarpeesta suojella sitä kotivarkauksilta, ehkäpä aikoinaan noelta ja lialtakin. Joka tapauksessa viittasi sisustus sellaisenaan keskiajan vakiintumattomiin oloihin.41
Pappila teki sentään huonekalujen huolellisen tekotavan vuoksi siistin ja varakkaan vaikutuksen talonpoikaistupiin verrattuna, talonpojista kun vielä 17 sataluvun lopullakin valitettiin, »etteivät hanki itsellensä mukavia ja siistejä talouskapineita, eivätkä kotiesineitä», vaan turvattomuustunteen valtaamina kaivavat mieluummin omaisuutensa maahan.» Käsityksen pappilatuvan sävystä antanee se kuvaus, jonka Saara Wacklin epäilemättä vanhojen muistitietojen nojalla antaa oululaisen kauppiaan arkituvasta 16 sataluvun lopulla, jos kohta kuvaus ehkä onkin jonkun verran kaunisteleva. »Tupa oli kuten tavallisesti siihen aikaan tilava», kirjailijatar kuvailee, »kolmella sivulla oli kolme matalaa ja leveätä ikkunaa, joissa kadun puolella oli puuluukut ja joissa oli ruudut pienet kuin korttilehdet lyijykehysten välissä; katossa oli paksut kannatinhirret, seinät olivat valkaistut, lattialla hienoa koristettua hiekkaa sekä vasta hakattuja kuusenhavuja avonaisen takan ympärillä. Korkea tummanruskeaksi maalattu kaappi oli nurkassa, lattiasta kattoon saakka täynnä valkoisia maitokehloja. Vieressä seisoi suuri kannella ja kauhalla varustettu saavi, täynnä hapanta maitoa. Yhdellä seinänvierustalla oli valkeaksi pesty pitkä pöytä ja samanlainen penkki. Ikkunoiden välissä oli suuri tamminen saranapöytä. Samanlainen veistoksilla varustettu vaatekaappi seisoi seinällä neljän pyöreän pallojalan varassa. Kangaspuut olivat pystytetyt sitä vastapäätä talon tyttäriä varten. Nurkassa seisoi seinäkello kaapissansa, jonka siniselle pohjalle oli maalattu suuria punaisia ruusuja, ja joka kerta kellon lyödessä pisti käki päänsä esiin luukusta ja kukahteli. Muutamia puuteoksia, ruoka- ja avainkaappi sekä puoli tusinaa rukkeja -siinä kaikki huonekalut mitä silmä saattoi keksiä. »42)
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57. Carl d'Ogiers Dag-bok, Stockholms Magazin 1780, helmikuu.
58. Olaus Magnus, de gentibus septentrionalibus, XIII, kapp. 48. —. K. Ahlenius. Olaus Magnus och hans framställning af nordens geografi, Upsala 1895, siv. 332 ja alimuistutus.
59. Reinh. Hausen, Ett högadligt bo vid medlet af 1600-talet. Svenska Literatursällskapets förhandlingar och uppsatser 3, siv. 204 ja seur. — Reinh. Hausen, Bidrag till Finlands historia III, siv. 229 ja seur.
60. Sauvon kirkkoh. Tammelinin peruluettelo 22—23 p. helmik. 1749. Suomen valtioarkisto. — Kirkkonummen kirkkoh. Limnellin peruluettelo, liitteenä Hämeen-Uudenmaanläänin maaherran Kunink. Maj:lle 1 p. syysk. 1779. Ruotsin valtioarkisto
61. Halikon kirkkoherran Paulinin peruluettelo 25 p. heinäk. 1750. Suomen valtionarkisto.
62. Olaus Magnus, Historiæ de gentibus septentrionalibus, Rooma 1555, XVIII, luku 6
63. Kemin kirkkoherran Ervastin pernluettelo 18 p. kesäk. 1757, liitteenä Pohjanmaan maaherran kirjelmään Kunink. Maj:lle. Ruotsin valtioarkisto. — Rauman kirkkoherran Neocleanderin peruluettelo v. 1662. Rauman kaupunginarkisto.
64. Sparlllan, Sundhetzens speghel, Tukholma 1642, siv. 325.
65. Luettelo Karkun kirkkoherran Mathias Mathiaen takavarikkoon otetusta omaisuudesta v. 1591. Suomen valtioarksito, n:o 129. Saattaisi myös ajatella vain yhtä lakanaa kerrallaan käytetyn.
66. Perniön kappalaisen Ambergin peruluettelo 10 p. joulnk. 1707. Suomen valtioarkisto. — Limingan kirkkoherran Lithoviuksen peruluettelo 6 p. helmik. 1735. Suomen valtioarkisto.
67. Sievin kappalaisen Forteliuksen peruluettelo liitteenä Pohjanmaan maaherran kirjelmään 17 p. maalisk. 1770. Ruotsin valtioarkisto.Suuri oli ero arjen ja juhlan välillä tuvassa. Ei siinä kyllä, että arkitoimet juhlien ajaksi kerrassaan lakkasivat, tuvan koko ulkonäkö senlisäksi muuttui: seinät, katto ja osa huonekaluistakin verhottiin kauttaaltaan kankailla. Kankailla verhottu tupa oli varmaan silloisen kodin kauneusihanne. mutta lisäksi lienee tuolla koristelulla ollut käytännöllinenkin merkitys. Tuntuu näet luonnolliselta, että täten haluttiin suojata juhlivien pitovaatteita tahrautumasta nokisiin tahi likaisiin seiniin, varsinkin niinkauan kun savupirteissä asuttiin, sekä estää sirkkoja, hämähäkkejä ja muita itikoita putoamasta juhlavierasten päälle taikka ruokiin, sillä yleisesti uskottiin noitien sekä itse paholaisenkin sekottavan tuollaisia hyönteisiä ruokaan ja juomaan, jotta ihmiset niitä nieltyään sairastuisivat ja kuolisivat; saarnoissa mainittiin varottavana esimerkkinä miten paavi Hadrianus oli hämähäkin nieltyään paisunut muodottomaksi ja lopulta läkähtynyt; ja d'Ogier nimenomaan kertookin matkamuistelmissaan, että 16 sataluvulla Ruotsissa käytettiin kangaskatoksia ruokapöytäin yläpuolella, jotta ne hämähäkkien pöydälle putoamista vastaan suojaisivat.57 Oli miten tahansa, jo Olaus Magnus kertoo 15 sataluvun tupien olleen verhottuja valkoisella verkkomaisella kudoksel1a, jota kutsuttiin nimellä spraangning, väittääpä hän tupien arkioloissakin olleen tällaisessa asussa. On selitetty sanan språng (språnga) vieläkin elävän jossakin ruotsalaisessa murteessa ja tarkottavan kirjavaksi, kuosilliseksi kudottua kangasta.58 Tosiaan tapaakin Liuksialan kartanon kangasvarastoissa 16 sataluvun keskivaiheilla noita verkoitettuja eli kuositettuja kankaita, vieläpä sillätavoin että valkoiselle kankaalle oli verkoitettu erivärisellä langalla; esm. Mustalla silkillä verkoitettuja käsiliinoja, punaisella verkoitettuja harmaanviheriäisiä vuodekaihtimia. Ja joka tapauksessa oli tavallista — näin oli asianlaita sekä Liuksialassa 16 sataluvun puolivälissä, että esm. Nynäsin kartanossa satakunta vuotta aikaisemmin, ja edelleen pappiloissa pitkin 17:ttä satalukua, että seinä- ja kattoverhot sekä vuodekaihtimet, jopa kaikenkaltaiset liinatkin olivat kaksivärisiä, ja enimmäkseen niin, että tummempaa tahi räikeämpää väriä oli sovitettu vaaleammalle pohjalle.59Tällaisten verhojen ohella olivat raitaiset jo kauan olleet muodissa. Niinmuodoin olivat Euran pappilassa v. 1736 seinäverhot kotikutoista raitaista kangasta, Sauvon pappilan toisessa huoneessa v. 1749 puna- ja keltaiset sarsiverhot, toisessa liinaiset (kaiketi siis valkoiset) verhot, joille ovien, ikkunain ja kattoparrujen kohdille oli sovitettu punaisia sarsikappaleita; Kirkkonummen pappilassa oli 30 vuotta myöhemmin — esimerkkejä voisi mainita miten paljon tahansa — muutamassa huoneessa keltapohjaiset verhot, muutamassa valkoiset ja harmaat, muutamassa taas sinipohjaiset ja valkeat.60 Liina- tahi sarsikankaalle lankaompeleilla verkoittamisen sijaan tuli aikaa voittaen maalilla värittäminen, mutta kuosi näkyy säilyneen samantapaisena: yksiväriselle pohjalle viskattiin erivärisiä pilkkuja, eli laikkoja, kunnes koko verho sai pilkutetun, ikäänkuin verkkomaisen sävyn — tapa, joka säilyi kauas 18 sataluvulle.
Kuositettiinko noita kaksivärisiä seinäverhoja kuvioihinkin, on vaikea sanoa: ainakin d'Ogier näki vuosina 1634—1635 Ruotsin pappiloissa kaikkialla seinissä ja katoissa maalauksia, jotka tämän matkailijan arvostelun mukaan »eivät suinkaan olleet hollantilaisen eivätkä italialaisen aistin mukaisia»; ja 17 sataluvulla oli kuvitettuja seinäverhoja joissakuissa Suomen pappiloissa, esm. Kokkolan pappilassa 1760-luvulla öljyvärillä maalattuja sekä varsinaisesti kuvallisia, että lehtiaiheisia. Joka tapauksessa riippui pappilain seinillä arkioloissa pelkällä hirsiseinällä, juhlatiloissa verhojen päällä, tauluja: maalattuja muotokuvia, vaskipiirroksia sekä kaikenlaisia helppohintaisia jäljennöksiä. Muotokuvissa olivat ensi sijassa edustettuina kirkko ja maallinen esivalta. Kristuksen, Davidin ja Lutherin rinnalla koristivat näet seiniä hallitsijat, kuten konsanaan meidän päiväimme talonpoikaistaloissa; oli Kustaa II Adolf, Kaarle XII, vapaudenajan hallitsijat, Kustaa III ja eräs 14-tauluinen kuvaryhmä, jossa kustavilaisen perheen jäsenet esitettiin. Olipa Halikon pappilassa v. 1750 »Europan valtakuntain ja hallitsijain peili» sekä Pietarsaaressa viisi vuotta myöhemmin Tamerlanin muotokuva.61Lisäksi tulivat sitten suku- ja perhekuvat: niinpä oli Sundin pappilassa v. 1738 paitsi pappilanhaltijan kirkkoherra Kjellinin kahta muotokuvaa — kumpikin eri ikäkausilta — hänen isänsä kaksi, isänisän, isänäidin sekä vihdoin »kirkkoherra Aeimelaeus-vainajan» (nähtäv. Halikon kirkkoh. Aeimelaeus † 1735) kuvat; ja samantapainen kokoelma oli Taivassalon kirkkoherralla Thorvöstella v. 1750. Muunlaisista muotokuvista ei sensijaan paljonkaan merkkejä ollut: eipä edes piispoista eikä vapaudenajan valtiollisista merkkihenkilöistä. Kuvat sellaiset kuin kreivi Magnus Gabriel de la Gardien Kumlingen pappilassa v. 1747 ja talonpoikaissäädyn puhemiehen Olof Håkaninpojan Muhoksella v. osottavat vain miten vähän 17 sataluvun virkeät ja monipuoliset harrastukset olivat ehtineet pappilain muotokuvakokoelmissa ruumiillistua.
Ja milteipä saman vaikutuksen saa laatukuvistakin pappilain seinillä. Niissäkin oli tietysti uskonnollisilla aiheilla tärkeä sija. Niinpä Sundissa v. 1738: Kristuksen ristiinnaulitseminen, suuri kalansaalis, koko isämeidän kuparipiirroksina, Jerusalemin kaupungin pohjapiirros, 12 paperille painettua kuvaa raamatullisista aiheista ja yhtä monta vanhojen isien (apostolien?) kuvaa; Pietarsaaressa v. 1755: Kristuksen vieminen Golgatalle sekä 14 nyrnbergiläistä taulua Kristuksen kärsimishistoriasta — aihe, joka tuontuostakin palautuu pappilain seinätauluissa. Harvoin laatukuvissakaan tapaa uskonnollisten aiheitten rinnalla aikakauden maallisiin harrastuksiin viittaavia: sellaisiin saattaisi laskea Sundissa v. 1738 »marakatin ja papukaijan», taikka taas toisissa pappiloissa »ihmisen neljä ikäkautta» ja »neljä vuodenaikaa», jotka varmaankin asujamille mielenkiintoisesti valaisivat luonnon tunnettua kehitystä neljän alkuaineen vuorotellen vallitessa ja samalla ehkä antoivat aavistuksen kaiken maallisen kukoistusajan katoavaisuudesta.
Maalaukset seinillä olivat vielä kauan varakkaitten ylellisyyttä, kuten itse seinäin taikka seinäverhojen maalaaminenkin. Ja sama oli huonekalujen laita, jotka niinikään suureksi osaksi olivat maalaamattomia ja vain juhlatiloiksi verhottiin kankaalla. Huomattavin näistä oli suuri vuode, joka usein oli pysyväisesti juhla-asuun verhottuna kuin pieni huone, siinä kun oli sekä katos että kankaasta kaihtimet. Erilaisia kankaita kaihtimiksi käytettiin, usein sarkaa, ja heleän värisiä ne olivat, punaisia, sinisiä ja ennen kaikkea viheriäisiä; enimmäkseen valkoiset tahi keltaiset nyörit sekä tupsut koristivat niitä, pohjavärille tavanmukaista lisäväriä tarjoten ja katoksesta riippui verhojen yli laskos. Verhojen tarkoituksena oli varmaankin, kuten seinäverhojenkin, estää itikoita tunkeutumasta nukkujan suuhun, varjella ehkä myöskin seinien läpi puhaltelevalta viimalta sekä kuun paisteelta, joka muka nukkujan kasvoille langetessaan oli varsin vaarallista. Peitteinä oli yleisesti vielä 17 sataluvulla eläinten taljoja vuorattuina loistavanvärisellä veral1a, sekä ryijyjä ja raanuja. Petoeläinten taljoja lienee pidetty parempina. Olaus Magnushan kertoo, että arvokkaimpain vieraitten varalta pidettiin kallisarvoisia ahmantaljoja, mutta, hän lisää, niiden alla nukkuessa sai ahman luonnon, uneksi lakkaamatta metsän eläväin pyydystämisestä ja ahmimisesta.62 Karhun, suden, ilveksen ja jäniksen nahat olivat myöhemminkin tavallisia vuodepeitteitä, samoin poron ja vuohenkin, mutta lammasnahkavällyjä katsottiin halpa-arvoisiksi, palvelusväelle sopiviksi. Vuodepeitteistä antanee käsityksen esm. Kemin pappilan varasto v. 1757: »kolme uutta jäniksen-nahkaista vällyä, yksi puoleksi kulutettu, viheriällä saralla päällystetty karhuntalja, kolme raanua, kaksi porontaljaa, yksi viltti, kaksi kattuunipeitettä, kaksi vanhempaa kattuunipeitettä, vanha värjätty liinapeite». Ja lakanatkin sekä patjat olivat aikoinaan olleet nahasta: nahkalakanat oli vielä v. 1662 Rauman pappilassa, ja Kokkolan pappilassa mainitaan v. 1736 kaksi nahkapatjaa.63
Jo vuosisatoja sitten oli kuitenkin aljettu käyttää kangasta makuuvaatteina, ja kangas oli ruvennut syrjäyttämään muodista nahka- ja taljapeitteitä. niinkauan kun asumukset olivat hatarat ja kylmälle alttiit, oli vällyjen ja ryijyjen lisäksi käytetty erikoista vuoteenlämmittäjää, hiilillä täytettyä varrellista metallilaatikkoa, joka lämmitti kylmimmätkin vuoteet; 17 sataluvun toisella puoliskollakin niitä pappiloissa oli. Mutta sittemmin, kun tuvat olivat käyneet lämpimiksi ja seinät tiiviiksi, olivat tämäntapaiset varusteet epäilemättä tulleet liikanaisiksi. Sparman, muuan 16 sataluvun lääkärikirjailijoita, oli vielä katsonut velvollisuudekseen kehottaa ihmisiä peittämään itsensä huolellisesti yön ajaksi: koska muka lämpö oli nukkuessa vetäytynyt ruumiin sisäosiin, niin päällisosat kylmästä helposti vahingottuivat, hikirauhaset tukkeutuivat ja epäterveelliset ainekset eivät päässeet huokosista poistumaan, josta pahat paiseet, syyhelmät, pistokset kupeissa j. n. e. olivat seurauksena; mutta toisaalta oli hän varottanut myöskään makaamasta liian lämpimissä vuoteissa.64 17 sataluvulla juuri varotukset liiasta lämmöstä monistuivat.
Kun makuuvaatteita ruvettiin ensi sijassa kankaasta valmistamaan, kävi myös mahdolliseksi pitää parempaa huolta niiden puhtaudesta. 15 ja 16 sataluvulla oli makuusijoja varten kerta kaikkiansa vain yhdet vaatteet. Karkun pappilassa oli v. 1591 niinmuodoin vuoteita neljä, sillä 4 pitkää patjaa, 4 päänaluspatjaa, neljä korvallispatjaa, neljä vuodevaatetta, neljä pientä ryijyä, neljä paria lakanoita ja kahdet nahkavällyt luetellaan;65 ja Rauman pappilassa mainitaan v. 1662 makuuvaatteet itse vuoteisiin kuuluvina; esm. »pikkutuvan vuoteessa: mustalla saralla verhottu patja, säämiskäinen pääpatja, säämiskäinen korvallispatja, vanha ryijy, vanha ja rikkein saksalainen pöytäliina, päällystämätön lampaannahka, vanhat värjätyt vuodekaihtimet, vanha kaihdinten päärme.» Vielä 17 sataluvulla on makuuvaatteitten luku hämmästyttävän pieni. Perniön kappalaistalossa mainitaan niinmuodoin v. 1707 »makuvaatteita kahteen vuoteeseen lakanoineen ja kaikkine tarpeineen; »66 ja tuskin saattaa esm. Limingan pappilan makuuvaatteistakaan v. 1735 muuhun käsitykseen tulla kuin että yhdet vaatekerrat edelleenkin riittivät kutakin vuodetta kohti: kahdeksan pitkää patjaa näet oli, yhtä monta paria lakanoita, yhtä monta pyyhinliinaa ja korvallispatjaa, päänaluspatjoja tosin vain kuusi, kuusi sudentaljaa ja kahdet jäniksennahkaiset vällyt; niinikään oli esm. Sievin kappalaistalossa v. 1770 patjat ja peitteet kolmeen vuoteeseen, vain neljä lakanaa ja yhtä monta patjanpäällistä; ja samaan tapaan, mikäli näyttää verrattain yleisesti, aina sataluvun lopulle asti67Kangasta katsottiin ilmeisesti kauan siksi kallisarvoiseksi tavaraksi, ettei sitä kannattanut suotta tuhlata: tietäväthän muistotiedot vieläkin kertoa, miten köyhäin pappilain lapset pantiin päiväkausiksi vuoteisiin, kun heidän liinavaatteitansa pestiin. Mutta sittenkin on ilmeistä, että pappiloissa, ja varsinkin varakkaissa, kaikenlaisen liinaisen lukumäärä oli nousemassa.
Tietenkään ei huonekaluihinkaan arkioloissa kangasta tuhlattu: penkinpäällisethän otettiin esille vain juhliksi, ja sama lienee ollut pöytäliinojenkin laita.
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76. Sauvon kirkkoh. Tammelinin peruluettelo 22—23 p. helmik. 1749. — Vanajan kirkkoh. Velinin peruluettelo 20 p. maalisk. 1765. Molemmat Suomen valtioarkistossa. — Tuomiorovasti Forteliuksen peruluettelo liitteenä Hämeen-Uudenmaan maah. kirjelmään Kunink. Maj:lle 23 p. heinäk. 1768. Ruotsin valtioarkisto.
77. Perintöriita kapteeni Beckborgin peruista 18—21 p. maalisk. 1752. Lappeen tuomiok. tuomiokirja. Suomen valtioarkisto.
78. Egenhändiga anteckningar af Grefve C. G. Tessin öfver hans meubler och andra effecter. Tessinin kokoelma. Ruotsin valtioarkisto.Mullistus, jonka huonekaluston uudistus aikaansai perinnäisessä tuvansisustuksessa, tuli vielä silmiinpistävämmäksi senkautta, että toisenlaisia aineksia aljettiin sisustukseen käyttää ja että kodin ikivanha kauneusihanne senmukaisesti muuttui. Vanhat huonekalut näkyvät enimmäkseen olleen honkapuusta tehtyjä, vaikka tammisiakin oli joukossa, mutta sittemmin tuli käytäntöön kevyempiä puulajeja, leppä, haapa, pähkinäpuu j.n.e. Myöskin katsottiin varakkaissa pappiloissa asiaankuuluvaksi, että huonekalut maalattiin, jos kohta köyhissä pappilakodeissa vielä kauan tapasi maalaamattomia esineitä maalattujen rinnalla. Vielä 17 sataluvun alulla oli ruskea vallitsevana värinä, mikä lienee erikoisesti soveltunut siihen puolihämärään valaistukseen, joka pienien, sameanlaisten lasiruutujen läpitse suuriin arkitupiin tunkeutui. Sensijaan kun ikkunat suurenivat ja asumusten valaistus kävi kirkkaammaksi, ruvettiin sisustukseenkin tuhlailemaan kirkkaita, heleitä värejä: mieluimmin valittiin tällöinkin kaksi pääväriä, jotka eduksensa taittuivat toinen toistansa vastaan. Puolittain tähän suuntaan, puolittain vielä vanhanmallisesti sisustetulta tuntui — esimerkkejä mainitaksemme — Sauvon pappila v. 1749: luetellaan siniseen ja vihreään visamalliin väritetty, punareunainen honkakaappi, sini-viheriä ruokakaappi, viheriä visamallinen (grön masurerad) ja keltareunainen kellokaappi, ruskea visamallinen laskospöytä, visapuulla somistettu tamminen yölaatikko y.m. Sensijaan oli Vanajan pappilan huonekalustossa v. 1765 m.m. viheriä pulpetti, punainen naisen lipasto, sininen arkku, ruskeita tuoleja ja lakalla kiilloitettu nurkkakaappi; tuomiorovasti Forteliuksella Porvoossa v. 1768 valkealla ja sinisellä päällystetty sohva, kuusi sinisellä verhottua nojatuolia, keltaisella verhottu sohva ja samanlaisia nojatuoleja, viheriällä verhottuja tuoleja, viheriä vuode, keltainen vuode toisessa huoneessa viheriät, toisessa keltaiset seinäverhot.76
Huonekaluston mukaisesti muuttuivat myös seinäverhot: kangasverhoja maalattiin taikka väistyivät ne paperista tehtyjen tieltä. Paperiverhojen käyttämistä lienee taas edistänyt yhä enenevä pyrkimys tukkia seinänraot viimalta niin huolellisesti kuin suinkin. Niinpä antoi Kalm v. 1762 yksityiskohtaisia neuvoja siitä, miten lämmön säilyttämistä varten katon ja seinien raot oli umpeenliisteröitävä sahajauhoista valmistetulla paperilla taikka sitten kartuusipaperilla, jotapaitsi käytetty kirjoituspaperi oli siihen muka omiansa; jos oli varaa, saattoi paperilla verhota koko seinänkin: »sillä tavoim», Kalm lisää, »voi estää miltei kaiken ilmanpääsön huoneeseen; jos haluaa, saattaa sitten maalarilla maalauttaa paperille, mitä kauneimpana pitää». Tosiaan alkoi pappiloissa esiintyä paperiverhoja kangasverhojen ohella jo 1740-luvulta alkaen: esm. Sanvossa v. 1749 liinaisten, sarssi- ja turkkilaisten seinäverhojen rinnalla »väritettyjä paperitapetteja pieneen huoneeseen»; Taivassalossa v. 1750 turkkilaiset tapetit toisessa kamarissa, paperitapetit toisessa; tuomiorovasti Forteliuksella v. 1768 keltaiset liinaverhot, vaaleansiniset liinaverhot ja viheriät paperitapetit. Eivätkä paperiverhot olleet yksinomaan juhlia varten olemassa kuten aluksi kankaiset, vaan jäivät alituisesti seinillä riippumaan, osottaen miten entinen jyrkkä ero juhlan ja arjen välillä oli häviämässä.
Eikä tässä kyllä: muutos ulottui pienimpiin tarvetavaroihin asti. Ikimuistoisista ajoista oli pöytäkalusto ollut puusta tahi, mikäli varallisuus salli, tinasta: suuria tinavateja ja soppamaljoja, tinapikareita ja pyökkilautasia mainitaan kosolta. Sitäpaitsi oli ollut miltei jokaisen pappilan kaunisteena jokunen hopeapikari ja juomamalja; ja missä niitä enemmän oli, oli joukossa kullattujakin: kerrotaanpa nimenomaan toisinaan, että hopeapikarit olivat arkioloja varten, kullatut juhlavieraille varatut.77 Nimikirjaimet osottivat tällaisten esineitten useasti kulkeneen miespolvia suvussa ja hätätilassa ne kelpasivat pantiksi rahaa vastaan. Joskohta niitten käyttö sitkeästi säilyi aina 18 sataluvulle asti, jopa kuten Acerbi todistaa oli tullut yleiseksi talonpoikaistaloissakin, rupesi porslinikalusto kuitenkin syrjäyttämään metalliastiat muodista. 1760-ja 1770-luvuilla oli tosin edelleen varsin monta pappilaa olemassa, joissa porslinikalustoa ei ensinkään ollut taikka vain jokunen puolitusina teekuppeja, mutta sataluvun lopussa oli jo miltei kaikkialla porslininen pöytäkalusto vanhan tinaisen ohella. Varakkaissa pappiloissa oli varsin kallisarvoisiakin porslinikalustoja, osittain ruotsalaisesta Mariebergin tehtaasta, osittain taas itäintialaista tekoa.
Tosin eivät lukuisat korutavarat ja pikkuesineet, jotka 17 luvulla olivat erikoisesti muodissa ja joiden paljoudesta saa aavistuksen esm. Tessinin muodikasta kalustoluetteloa silmäillessä, pappiloihin suurestikaan eksyneet:78 emalji-, vaha-, lakkateokset y.m. olivat niinmuodoin täällä varsin harvinaisia. Mutta näinkin ollen riitti pappilasisustuksen yleisleima osottamaan, että nyttemmin ei enään annettu siinä määrin kuin ennen arvoa sisustuksen jykevyydelle, kestävyydelle ja kallisarvoisuudelle, vaan pyrittiin valmistamaan huonekalut mukavammiksi, keveämmiksi ja sirommiksi, kaikki esineet helpommiksi käsitellä. Tässä, kuten erikoisesti yksityisissä esineissäkin: mukavasti istuttavassa sohvassa, lakalla kiilloitetussa teepöydässä, porslinikalustoissa, paperi- ja pahvitekeleissä, tuntui tuulahdus näitten muotiesineitten kotiseuduilta, itämailta: Turkista, Intiasta, Kiinasta ja Japanista. Elpyvän maailmankaupan mukana tuli lisäksi kourin käsiteltäviäkin todistuksia niistä kaukaisista maista, joista muodissa olevat matkakuvaukset kertoivat ja joita kohtaan pappiloissammekin oli herännyt harrastus. Sen rikkaan monimuotoisuuden edessä, joka uusissa esineissä, niiden aineksissa, muodoissa ja värityksessä tuli näkyviin, ei renessansin yksinkertainen, suoraviivainen muotoihanne kestänvt. Vielä vähemmin kestivät ne keskiaikaisten elämänmuotojen jätteet, jotka niin merkillisen sitkeästi olivat 17 sataluvulle asti säilyneet. Juuri tämä sataluku tuli niinmuodoin meidänkin syrjäisissä oloissamme ja asumuksissamme olemaan perinpohjaisen, vaikkakin rauhallisen kumousliikkeen aikaa.
Coloriasto on väriaiheisten tekstien (ja kuvien) verkkoarkisto
(Archive for colour themed articles and images)
INDEX: coloriasto.net
Santeri Alkio: Murtavia voimia
Santeri Alkio: Murtavia voimia
Kuvauksia katovuoden 1867 ajoilta.
Werner Söderström, Porvoo 1896.
VIII luku
[osa luvusta]
[---]
»No mitä se isäntä nyt ostaa?» rupesi Kastori kyselemään. Mikko kaiveli piippuaan kessun poroista tyhjäksi ja tahtoi »Rettingin kasakoita nyt aluksi piippuun». Kastorin silmät sirahtivat kurillisesti ja ajatuksissa vilahti: tuo vanha kitupiikki! Mutta hän toi juhlallisesti tupakkalaatikon tiskille:
»Tass’ onkin nyt vaabenoita», sanoi. »Saamari, kyllä ne ovat äijää!»
»Vaapenoita?» epäili Mikko hypistellen karkeita parikunnan kartuusia laatikossa. »Jopas valehtelet!»
»Valehtelet? Jumal’auta, katsos, etkö sä loittoposki nyt sen vertaa ymmärrä, vaikka olet kestikievari ja niin rikas kun Hooperkin äijä (Siikalahden Mikkoa huvitti ja nauratti) että jota parempia kartuusit ovat, sitä suuremmiksi ne leikataan. Kuulepas, pruunin painekin on aina sitä parempaa, mitä suurempia hakoja ja lastuja. Se paine, oikein hyvä paine, jota värjärit viljelevät, on oikein suuria lastuja. Mutta ei täällä siitä ämmät huolisi, niille täytyy tuoda huonompia, hienoa puutua... Sellaista se on, mies.»
Siikalahden Mikko ja Kastori näkyivät olevan hyviä tuttuja. Sillä aikaa kuin Kastori pruunin paineella todisti Parikunnan kartuusit »Rettingin kasakoiksi», puhdisti Siikalahden Mikko tarkoin rautanaulalla piippunsa sisustan, jonka jälkeen sen jälleen täytti saman naulan avulla niin täyteen kuin ikänä mahtui ja vielä kukkuraakin pani. Sytytti ja imi hidaskulkuista savua posket lontossa ja pitäen piipun koppaa nenäpystössä ylöspäin, kun tupakat tahtoivat kuohua ja varista. Kastorilla oli omat hommansa. Hän takoi kauppapöydällä rikki väskynän siemenen kuoria sokeripuukon kamaralla ja keräsi siemenet yhteen kasaan. Kun kasa oli valmis, pyyhkäisi hän sen tiskiltä käteensä ja heitti suuhunsa. Siinä niitä paputellessa silmät kiiluvina miellyttävästä nautinnosta hän tuskin huomasikaan Siikalahden Mikkoa, joka yhä peukalonsa kynnellä tukki kuohuvia, palavia tupakoita piipussa pysymään ja alkoi miettiä, että pitäisipä tämä polttaa loppuun, että saa vielä täyttää piippunsa... Mikon piippu oli suuri visakollo.
[---]
Kuvauksia katovuoden 1867 ajoilta.
Werner Söderström, Porvoo 1896.
VIII luku
[osa luvusta]
[---]
»No mitä se isäntä nyt ostaa?» rupesi Kastori kyselemään. Mikko kaiveli piippuaan kessun poroista tyhjäksi ja tahtoi »Rettingin kasakoita nyt aluksi piippuun». Kastorin silmät sirahtivat kurillisesti ja ajatuksissa vilahti: tuo vanha kitupiikki! Mutta hän toi juhlallisesti tupakkalaatikon tiskille:
»Tass’ onkin nyt vaabenoita», sanoi. »Saamari, kyllä ne ovat äijää!»
»Vaapenoita?» epäili Mikko hypistellen karkeita parikunnan kartuusia laatikossa. »Jopas valehtelet!»
»Valehtelet? Jumal’auta, katsos, etkö sä loittoposki nyt sen vertaa ymmärrä, vaikka olet kestikievari ja niin rikas kun Hooperkin äijä (Siikalahden Mikkoa huvitti ja nauratti) että jota parempia kartuusit ovat, sitä suuremmiksi ne leikataan. Kuulepas, pruunin painekin on aina sitä parempaa, mitä suurempia hakoja ja lastuja. Se paine, oikein hyvä paine, jota värjärit viljelevät, on oikein suuria lastuja. Mutta ei täällä siitä ämmät huolisi, niille täytyy tuoda huonompia, hienoa puutua... Sellaista se on, mies.»
Siikalahden Mikko ja Kastori näkyivät olevan hyviä tuttuja. Sillä aikaa kuin Kastori pruunin paineella todisti Parikunnan kartuusit »Rettingin kasakoiksi», puhdisti Siikalahden Mikko tarkoin rautanaulalla piippunsa sisustan, jonka jälkeen sen jälleen täytti saman naulan avulla niin täyteen kuin ikänä mahtui ja vielä kukkuraakin pani. Sytytti ja imi hidaskulkuista savua posket lontossa ja pitäen piipun koppaa nenäpystössä ylöspäin, kun tupakat tahtoivat kuohua ja varista. Kastorilla oli omat hommansa. Hän takoi kauppapöydällä rikki väskynän siemenen kuoria sokeripuukon kamaralla ja keräsi siemenet yhteen kasaan. Kun kasa oli valmis, pyyhkäisi hän sen tiskiltä käteensä ja heitti suuhunsa. Siinä niitä paputellessa silmät kiiluvina miellyttävästä nautinnosta hän tuskin huomasikaan Siikalahden Mikkoa, joka yhä peukalonsa kynnellä tukki kuohuvia, palavia tupakoita piipussa pysymään ja alkoi miettiä, että pitäisipä tämä polttaa loppuun, että saa vielä täyttää piippunsa... Mikon piippu oli suuri visakollo.
[---]
Tytön kulennat.
Saima 17.7.1845
Tyttö käänty kullan kohdannasta,
Käänty käit punaiset – Äiti virkki:
Mistä käit punaisit tyttö kulta?
Tyttö virkki: kukkia keräisin,
Siinä varret vaan käsiini koski.
Käänty taasi kullan kohdannasta,
Käänty – suu punainen – Äiti virkki:
Mistä suun punaisit tyttö kulta?
Tyttö virkki: mansikoita maistin,
Siinä mettä huulillen herahti.
Käänty taasi kullan kohdannasta,
Käänty – kasvo kalvas – Äiti virkki:
Mistä kasvos on kalvaksi käynyt?
Tyttö virkki: Äiti! laita hauta,
Milma hautahan, ja risti päälle,
Sille ristihin sä näinpä piirrä:
”Ensi kerran käänty – käit punaiset;
Sillä kullan käit punannut oil ne.
Toisen kerran käänty – suu punainen;
Sillä kullan suu punannnut oil sen.
Viime kerran käänty – kasvo kalvas;
Kullan vilppi kasvon kalvastutti”.
A. Oksanen.
[Käännös Johan Ludvig Runebergin runosta; toinen käännös julkaistu Coloriastossa: Tytön kulennat]
Tyttö käänty kullan kohdannasta,
Käänty käit punaiset – Äiti virkki:
Mistä käit punaisit tyttö kulta?
Tyttö virkki: kukkia keräisin,
Siinä varret vaan käsiini koski.
Käänty taasi kullan kohdannasta,
Käänty – suu punainen – Äiti virkki:
Mistä suun punaisit tyttö kulta?
Tyttö virkki: mansikoita maistin,
Siinä mettä huulillen herahti.
Käänty taasi kullan kohdannasta,
Käänty – kasvo kalvas – Äiti virkki:
Mistä kasvos on kalvaksi käynyt?
Tyttö virkki: Äiti! laita hauta,
Milma hautahan, ja risti päälle,
Sille ristihin sä näinpä piirrä:
”Ensi kerran käänty – käit punaiset;
Sillä kullan käit punannut oil ne.
Toisen kerran käänty – suu punainen;
Sillä kullan suu punannnut oil sen.
Viime kerran käänty – kasvo kalvas;
Kullan vilppi kasvon kalvastutti”.
A. Oksanen.
[Käännös Johan Ludvig Runebergin runosta; toinen käännös julkaistu Coloriastossa: Tytön kulennat]
22.6.09
Calico-Printing in France
The Atlantic Monthly 133, 1868
["Manufacturers and Inventors." By Urbain Pages.]
In this age of liberty and of individual enterprise, when every one can freely choose his occupation and pursue it without let or hindrance, we with difficulty appreciate the all but insurmountable abstacles with restrictive and prohibitory laws, and the jealous exclusiveness of trade corporations, once presented to a youg and aspiring mechanic.
In the early ages of their history, these trade corporations were indeed the first rallying-points of liberty for the mechanic. They were, at first, secret societies, formed for mutual defence against the lawless and tyrannical exactions of the feudal lords, so continually engaged in private warfare with each other; but, as each trade naturally clustered together, these societies soon became trade corporations. Their bumbers and discipline made them formidable. Privileges were granted them and free towns established, in the government of which they took an active part; and the feudal lords were gradually forced to refrain from the cruel and ruinous oppression they had so long practised. But the oppressed readily become oppressors, and these corporations did not escape the general law. They became jealous, tyrannical, and exclusive. Improvement, progress, or innovation of any nature, was rejected by them with indignation and alarm; and time-honored customs and vexatious regulations met the mechanic in every direction. All that his father had done the son might do, but no more. His pay, his hours of work, the number of his apprentices, indeed, every detail, was strictly regulated by his corporation. From these trammels there was no escape, for an independent workman could not find employment. He was even forbidden to exercise his calling, and frequently was banished from town or village for insubordination. In a word, he was excluded from the right of earning his bread. It is, however, but fair to add, that, during illness or accidental incapacity, the workman and his family received from the corporation of which he was a member all the necessaries, and many of the comforts, of life. We cannot, therefore, be surprised that the domineering influence of these corporations or trade-unions continued long after the causes that led to their formation had disappeared.
The arbitrary laws and customs of trade corporations we can readily ascribe to jealous and unenlightened selfishness; but how can we explain, or even concelve, that patriotic and enlightened statesmen have clung with so much tenacity, through so many ages, to restrictive and prohibitory enactments and to sumptuary laws? the first forbidding industry, the other forbidding consumption! and yet every page of history tells us that such laws were enforced even to our own times.
Calico-printing in France suffered from all these causes; for, when these goods were first introduced, the extensive and powerful corporation of the weavers, and the corporation of the dyers, were greatly alarmed. They made every effort to suppress them, and positively forbade any member of their corporations to engage in this work. Through their clamor and influence they at length induced the government to issue decrees strictrly prohibiting the printing calicoes in France.
Notwithstanding the prohibitions and the heavy duties exacted at the frontiers, printed calicoes became fashionable; but the demand was almost wholly supplied by smugglers, who, in the very high prices obtained, found ample remuneration for the risks incurred.
The constant increase of smuggling, and the consequent decline of the revenue, together with the great umber of persons continually condemned for this offence to the galleys, and even to death, at length alarmed the Council of Trade, and induced them to propose more liberal measures. But such measures, then as now, met with violent opposition. Committees and deputies were despatched from Tours, Rouen, Rheims, Beauvais, and many other manufacturing towns, to remostrate with the ministers. They did not hesitate to affirm that foreign competition would utterly annihilate commerce and manufactures, and they conjured their sovereign not to take the bread of life from the poor weavers and their wives and children! The evil was, however, serious and increasing; for partial combats and loss of life were continually occuring near the frontiers. After a laborious examination and long hesitation, the council decided in favor of liberty; and Louis XV., in the year 1759, issued a royal decree, permitting the printing of calicoes in his kingdom of France. These decrees at once called individual enterprise into action; but it was principally to a German and a Protestant - to Christopher Philippe Oberkampf - that France is indebted for one of its most productive manufactures, which has given profitable employment to vast numbers of its inhabitants, and has markedly advanced the properity of the nation.
The history of this intelligent and indefatigable mechanis is, indeed, the history of the first successful establishment of calico-printing in France; and we are greatly indebted to the family and descendants of this extraordinary man for having confided the archives of their family to Mr. Urbain Pages, and to this distinguished author for his valuable and interesting history.
Christopher Philippe Oberkampf was born on the 11th of June, 1738, at Wissemback, a small town of Würtemburg. His father was a dyer, - an expert and laborious workman, and withal a strict Lutheran. In his youth he had made long peregrinations from town to town, supporting himself, as was then the custom, by working at his trade in every place he visited; employment being obtained for him by the dyer's corporation of each locality.
In this excellent school of experience he learned many new processes and new combination of colors, and acquire the art of dyeing in reserve, - that is to say, dyeing cloths in any color, but reserving the design in the ground-color of the material, which was generally white. He also learned to print on woollen goods.
After his return home, he discovered a method of producing a new color. This discovery gave him the well-merited reputation of being an expert and intelligent dyer and printer, and induced a large manufacturer of Bale, in Switzerland, to make him an advantageous offer of employment. These offers he accepted, with the express stipulation that his son, the eleven years old, should be received as an apprentice, and be instructed in drawing and engraving. The family made their journey to Bale on foot, and young Christopher marched quite proudly beside his father, with his bundle tied to a stick over his shoulder, thinking himself already wuite a man, and soon to become a smart workman. He was a bright, courageous boy, full of good-humor and of all the happy confidence of youth.
At Bale his father at once began work, and his son commenced his apprenticeship with the humble occupation of spreading colors upon the blocks his father used. The bright, inquisitive boy, ever ready to be useful, and anxious to learn, amused the workmen with his ready wit and cheerfulness, and soon made so favorable an impression that all were willing to explain to him the mysteries of their prodession and to initiate him into the secrets of their art. These mysteries consisted principally of caluable receipts for making or mixing colors, and were universally held as profound secrets. During the three years of his fatheräs engagement at Bale young Christopher made rapid progress in designing and engraving, - studies to which he devoted himself with unusual constancy.
The engagement ended, his father removed to Larrach, near Bale, and then to Schaffsheim, when, having by industry and economy laid by a small sum, but, above all, by strict religious honesty having acquired the condifence of all about him, he established (in1755) small print-works at Aarau, Switzerland. He was then principally occupied in printing calicoes. He was moderately successful, and the magistrates of the canton, anxious to encourage this new industry, which gave occupation to its citizens, and thus retained them at home, bestowed upon him the distinction and advantages of citizenship. This was no slight favor, for it was then more difficult to obtain than the more artistocratic titles bestowed by kings and princes.
Young Oberkampf was now an expert workman, for he had learned practically every operation, whether important, or secondary, and theoretically, all that Switzerland could teach him. The field his father had chosen soon became too narrow and limited for him, and he longed ardently to see the world. This desire grew stronger with his strength, and, after long hesitation, he informed his father of his wishes. The father would not listen to the proposition, for young Chrisropher was now a valuable aid to him, and he had destined him to be his successor. A century ago parental authority was quite absolute, and it was not only sustained by public sentiment, but also was amply enforced by legal enactments. There seemed, therefore, for young Oberkampf no other course but to resign himself to his hard fate. His imagination, however, still dwelt upon the attractions of the outer world, and at length obtained the mastery; for, having secured the implied consent of his mother, he furtively quitted his father's house, and launched himself into the great world. He first went to Mulhouse, already celebrated for its beautiful productions. Mulhouse was then a free city, and a firm ally of the Swiss Cantons. There be obtained employment as an engraver in the celebrated print-works of Samuel Koechlin and Henri Dolfus. Forty years later, in 1798, Mulhouse was incorporated into France.
The elder Oberkampf was naturally indignant at his conduct; but time wore away the sharp edge of his father's anger, and the influence of his mother finally obtained his pardon. After an absence of six months, he returned home, but with the express understanding that he might leave again at his pleasure.
His restless desires soon returned, and in October, 1793, when twenty years old, he determined to visit Paris, and from there go to Spain, where he had been told a new field was open to him. Once more he journeyed on foor, and reached the great city with his purse nearly empty, but with a strong heart full of courage, energy, and confidence.
Calico-printing in France was still strictly prohibited, but, from some unexplained reason, a small section of Paris, called the "Clos of St. Germain," enjoyed an exlusive privilege for printing. This privilege was propably a remnant of some ancient concessions made to the monastery of St. Germains, for in feudal times the monks alone gave protection to honest industry.
Under the protection of this privilege, a person named Cotin had established print-works. He was already known to Oberkampf, for Cotin had frequently sent to Switzerland for workmen, and to him Oberkampf now applied for employment to help him on his way. A designer, engraver, colorist, and printer, all united in one person, was a godsend to Cotin, and he at once secured the prize by a long engagement. The print-works soon felt the impulse given to it by the laborious and ardent young workman. It was while thus occupied that rumors of a change of policy on the part of the government, of its intention to repeal the prohibitory laws, were circulated, and naturally attracted the attention and excited the hopes of Oberkampf; and when at length the Decrees were published, he was exceedingly anxious to profit by them. He was intelligent, laborious, and a complete master of his trade; but the one thing needful, capital, he did not possess, and could not command. He had indeed amassed by strict economy, almost privation, the sum of one hundred and twenty-five dollars; but this was not capital, and yet it was the grain of mustard-seed which developed itself into wide-spread prosperity.
The print-works of Cotin had long been in embarrassment, and were now sustained by mere expedients. Payments were made with great difficulty, and then only by heavily loading the future. Cotin lost credit, and in consequence purchased his white cloths and dye-stuffs under great disadvantages. At length he was unable to pay his workmen regularly; and one by one they deserted him, until Oberkampf found himself almost alone. Although Oberkampf obtained with difficulty and delay the payment of his wages, a strong sentiment of probity, which in after life never deserted him, prevented him from breaking en engagement by which he still felt himself bound. Poor Cotin could not replace the absent workmen, and at the very moment when the recently published Decrees were about to give new life to his enterprise he was forced to close his works, and Oberkampf was free to form a new connection.
One of his countrymen named Tavanne, who held a small post under the Comptroller-General of Finance, had obtained early notice of the Decrees, and, full of confidence in the brilliant prospect about to be opened, had realized a small capital, and had employed it in establishing small print-works in the Rue de Seine St. Marcel. He was well acquainted with Oberkampf, and had made great efforts to induce him to join him, but Oberkampf refused so long as his engagement with Cotin continued. He had, however, promised to join him as soon as he was free to do so; and in the mean time had given valuable indications and advice to Taveanne, who thought it indispensable to be the first in the field. As soon as the Decrees were published, he commenced work. Oberkampf now joined Tavanne, who had impatiently waited for him. A short experience convinced Oberkampf that the works were badly located. Why remain in the city, to be continually obershadowed by dust and smoke, where land was dear, and water at a distance? and, above all, where the bustrle, excitement, and temptations of city life were continually distracting the attention of the workmen? Oberkampf insisted upon removing to the country, and at length prevailed upon Tavanne to seek for a favorable position. This was soon discovered, and, after several visits, a new location was selected.
About three miles from Versailles, and fifteen miles from Paris, lies the peaceful village of Jouy-en-Josas. It was a small hamlet, composed of a few cottages grouped around the church, and placed in a deep valley, - the hills on each side being covered with woods. Near it flowed the river Biévre, which watered the green prairies at the bottom of the valley. The position seemed to unite every advantage. The water was excellent and abundant, the green field could be had at a moderate price, and the seclusion of the valley secured it from the interruptions and the attractions of city life.
Oberkampf at once decided his partner in its favor, and noticing a small unoccupied house, having a grass-field attached to it, he proposed to Tavanne to secure it at once. After long bargaining, it was leased for nine years at a moderate rent. A few days afterwards, in the spring of 1760, Oberkampf, with his brother Fritz, whom he had called to him, and two workmen, transferred to this new scene of labor the implements of their trade, where a house-carpenter put them in place. It was a narrow field, for the house was so small that it was impossible to place it the large kettle used for heating and mixing the colors employed. Like the camp-kettle of a regiment, it was bravely placed in the open air in the yard. The remainder of the implements filled the house, leaving no place for furniture of any kind. In consequence, the printing-table was required to do triple duty; for, after a laborious day, a matress placed upon it served for a bed; and upon it was spread their frugal meals brought from the village, at the moderate price of eight cents each.
This was the humble origin of one of the most extensive and prosperous manufactures of France.
Work commenced with great ardor, and, on the 1st of May, 1760, Oberkampf printed the first piece of calico. There could be no division of labor among the four workmen; each became designer, colorist, or printer, as occasion rewuired; and at the end of two months a sufficient quantity of calicoes had been printed to be sent to market. Unfortunately, the commercial partner was not in any way equal to the manufacturer. Tavanne, having furnished the funds, had reserved for himself the sale of the goods; but unluckily he was quite incompetent. He could not effect sales nor provide funds for the white cloths purchased, and twhich were fast falling due. Perplexed and alarmed, he informed Oberkampf of his unfortunate dilemma. Oberkampf was not responsible for any losses incurred; but he at once gave his one hundred and twenty-five dollars to Tavanne, and then, with his usual energy, sought for aid to meet the difficultied of the situation.
An aqcuaintance of Tavanne, a Mr. Parent, first clerk of the Comptroller of finance at Versailles, had often visited the print-works, and had remarked the intelligence and industry of Oberkampf. To him Oberkampf applied for counsel. Mr. Parent received him in a friendly manner, and, as his position placed him in frequent communications with the merchants of Paris, he offered to apply to one of them for aid. He explained the affairs of Jouy to a silk-merchant of Paris (whose name is not mentioned), and induced him to make the necessary advances to meet the engagements of Tavanne, upon the condition that all the printed goods should be consigned to him for sale, and, in addition, that he should have a share in the profits. The merchant soon discovered that the print-works were profitable, and that Oberkampf was the cause of its success. Being a keen, shrewd man, he manoeuvred in such a manner as to disgust Tavanne with the whole affair, and finally bought of him all his interest in the business for the small sum of twelve hundred dollars. Not content with this, he further induced the candid and confiding Oberkampf to convey to him a part of his share of the profits. A drone had entered the hive, and was taking to himself the honey collected by the working bees.
The friendly interest of Mr. Parent had been excited, and he soon perceived, with regret, that the interests of Oberkampf were being sacrified by the grasping shrewdness of the merchant. He now cast about for a remedy. He proporsed another partner, who was ready to embark the large sum of ten thousand dollars in the business, for one third of the profits. This capital would place the printworks upon a solid basis, and Oberkampf accepted the proposition with great joy. The silk - merchant was greatly annoyed, but, fearing he might lose Oberkampf, he was forced to consent.
The new partner was Mr. Sarasin Demaraise, an advocate of Grenoble, who had, however, long resided in Paris. He was a learned and successful adcovate, but had always felt a strong inclination fro commerce, which he preferred, indeed, to his own occupation. He was an excellent man; and Oberkampf and himself naturally drew together, and soon became warm friends. With the consent of the partners, the books and countability of the print-works were confided to Mr. Demaraise, and the manufactory of Jouy now boasted of an office in Paris. The sale of the merchandise still remained in the hands of the merchant.
Erelong, Mr. Demaraise discovered that the merchant had secured to himself undue advantages; and the legal acumen of the advocate soon detected flaws and omissions in the original contract with Tavanne, and in the transfer to the merchant. This demaraise communicated to Oberkampf, showing him conclusively that he was working for another. He proporsed to him to unite, and drive the drone from the hive. With some reluctance and hesitation, Oberkampf consented. The merchant positively refused to sell to them his share of the business, even after the irregularities in his contract had been explained to him, and a suit at law was commenced.
To the advocate, Mr. Demaraise, a lawsuit was a pleasant matter; but to Oberkampf it seemed full of care, uncertainty, and alarm. Other cause of anxiety had arisen. He and his workmen were Protestants, and the inhabitants of the village were ill disposed towards this little colorny of strangers and heretics.
These causes of preoccupation and anxiety weighed heavily upon Oberkampf, when, unluckily, a freshet of the river laid his drying-field under water at the moment when his cloths were exposed. Oberkampf and his workmen plunged into the water to rescue the cloths. The next morning sharp pains and fever confined him to his bed; and there he remained several weeks, suffering all the pangs of severe nervous rheumatism. The vigor of youth and the strenght of his constitution, aided by a short visit to Switzerland, with the gentle care of his mother, at length gave him the victory.
In the mean while, the lawsuit made slow progress; but the friendly Mr. Parent once more offered his services, and at length effected a compromise. The belligerent advocate, Mr. Demaraise, was very unwilling to accede to it, but the influence of Mr. Parent and the urgent solicitations of Oberkampf at length prevalled. The drone was permitted to withdraw from the hive, well laden with honey.
A new co-partnership was now formed under the name of Sarasin Demaraise, Oberkampf, and Co.; and the partners, relieved from all embarrassments, determined to carry out their plans with activity and energy.
It is well known that cotton cloths have been printed in India from time immemorial; but there the outline of design alone was printed; all the colors were afterwads painted in by hand. For this reason, these goods, in France, were called "toiles peints, " or painted cloths, and they still retain the name. This industry was therefore in India more that of an artist than of a printer, and could be carried on only in a country when the price of labor was reduced to its lowest limits. In Europe all the colors were printed in the same manner as the outline; but for a long time the result was very imperfect and unsatisfactory, and at the same time slow and expensive. The colors were difficult to manage, for chemistry had not yet lent its aid. Nor had mechanics been applied, for block-printing alone was practised.
It may be well to explain to the uninitiated this simple process. A design was drawn upon a bloch of wood, of which the surfaces had been accurately smoothed, and repeated upon as many blocks as there were colors in the design; suppose three colors, - red, blue, and green. On the surface of the first block all but red color was cut away, and the red printed on the cloth. On the second block, all nut the blue was cut away, and this block was applied precisely to the place where the red block had been placed, and printed the blue color; and so with the geen. If the blocks were applied with precision, the result would be the design printed in three colors. It will be readily perceived, that, if each block is not applied with mathematical precision, the design will be awry, and very imperfect, if not destroyed, and thus occasion great loss of labor, materials, and cloth.
A few colors, such as indigo blue and some others, were still applied by hand, - generally by women, with small hair brushes.
It was all-important, therefore, to sevure the best workmen. This was very difficult, if not impossible, in France, where the corporations of the weavers and of the dyers exerted so much authority, and Oberkampf was forced to seek them in Germany and in Switzerland. He supplied his father and his brother-in-law Widmer, at Aarau, with the necessary funds to make advances to any good workman who was willing to come to Paris. In this way he secured the services of Rohrdorf and Hapber, both excellent designers; and of Bossert, a talented engraver. These three remained with him until their death, and formed a very superior staff of foremen. They always lived in friendly fellowship with Oberkampf, - taking their meals with him at the printing-table, - and shared his recreations whenever opportunities occurred. When more prosperous times came, they always resided at his house, and dined at his more luxurious table.
Every one now worked with ardor, and all were soon rewarded by evident success. Their designs were greatly admired, and the printing was so very superior that their goods met with a ready sale. The profits, too, augmented rapidly. The first year gave but $1,50 to $1,800, but the second year showed a gain of nearly $12,000. This great success determined the partners to enlarge their premises. The small house had indeed received many additions, but it was still too small and inconvenient. The capitalist, Demaraise, was ready to invest more of his fortune in so profitable an affair, and their credit was excellent; but this success was troubled by local annoyances.
The pious susceptibilities of the curate of Jouy were alarmed by the influx of Swiss workmen, most of whom were Protestants, and complaints had been made to the local authorities. Goodhumored patience and generous contributions gradually enlightened the curate and the mayor to their true interests, and their oppositions subsided; but a moer difficult obstacle remained. The partners required more land; but the seigneur of the village, the Marquis of Beuvron, had been annoyed by the establishment of the print-work in the quiet valley of which he was the principal proprietor, and so near to the chateau which he occupied. He coldly, but positively, refused to sell or let a prairie near the print-works, which had now become indispensable to its extension. He was, however, a generous and enlightened gentleman, and soon learned to respect the industry, integrity, and intelligence of his unwelcome neighbors. Nor could he refuse to noknowledge that the neighborhood and his own estate had profited by their presence. At lenght, after long solicitation, seconded by the liberal price offered, and by a generous present to the Marchioness, as was the custom of the age, ge consented to allow them to take the land they so earnestly desired.
The new building was commenced in 1764, and completed two years afterwards. Among other improvements made, a canal was dug from the river, the sides and bottom of which were well puddled with clay, and then incased with thick oaken planks. In this basin the cloths could be washed in perfect safety.
The establishment now assumed large proportions; for Oberkampf, while making great exertions to produce beautiful designs, enriched with brilliant colors, did not neglect to produce less expensive goods at a moderate price, within the reach of the great mass of consumers. The goods were called Mignonettes, from the nature of the designs, which consisted of small running flowers and vines, varied in disposition and color according to the taste of the moment or of the market to which they were destined .The sale of this class of goods was immense, for they penetrated into the most secluded corners of France.
The prosperity of the new establishment soon extended to the village, where houses were built, and waste lands cultivated, to supply the requirements of the increasing population, attracted by good wages and certain employment.
The reputation oft he print-works was now fully established; but it is an old maxim, that reputation can be maintained only by constant progress. To this end Oberkampf directed all his energy. He established a washing-mill to replace hand labor, and continually simplified and perfected every operation. When his brother brought from Switzerland a design engraved upon copper, he did not hesitate to adopt this innovation for fine work, notwithstanding the great additional expense.
This constant labor of mind and body could not, however, be sustained without recreation and relaxation. He built for himself and friends a moderate house, and at times indulged his passion for horses. He had two or more always in his stable, and a shart canter, in company with one of his foremen, over the neighboring hills, was a favorite diversion. Upon one occasion, the baying of hounds gave notice that the royal hunt was near. Louis XV., surrounded by a brilliant cortége of bobles, of nobles, huntsmen, and servants, swept by; and Oberkampf and his companion, carried away by the excitement, and thinking no harm, followed after at a respectful distance. Louis XV. remarked them, and inquired, "Who are those gentlemen so well mounted?" Upon being told, he coldly observed they would do better to remain at their factory, rather than lose their time in folloring his hunt, the observation was at once carried to Oberkampf, who, with his usual good sense, without any sign of anger, replied, "His Majesty is right, and we will profit by his counsel," and at once withdrew.
Oberkampf had remained unmarried; but he now decided to share his prosperity with another. He had long been acquainted with a Protestant family of Sancerre, and in that family he chose his wife. His dwelling-house and grounds were englarged and improves, but his marriage with Miss Palineau was celebrated in Paris. Mrs. Oberkampf was an accomplished musician, many of his Swiss foremen were good performers, and in the royal band at Versailles, near by, there were many Germans, who were soon in friendly relations with Jouy. The liberal hospitality of Oberkampf attracted them to his house, and upon Sundays and féte days, indeed upon every occasion, his house was crowded with musicians and artists; and music and the dance alternated with more serious theatricals and conversation.
Upon one occason the tutor of the royal princes brought them to visit the establishment, and Oberkampf explained the divers operations to the future Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X., who successively occupied the throne of France. The last, then called Count d'Artois, attempted to print, but the blocks were too heavy for his hand.
In 1782 Oberkampf met with a cruel misfortune. His wife, while attending one of her children, ill with the smallpox, contracted the disease, and became its victim.
In the mean while, the unfortunate Louis XVI. had succeeded to the throne of France. Ever anxious to encourage national industry, and t o reward merit, he conferred, in 1783, the title of Royal Manufactory upon the print-works of Jouy; and, four years later, he granted, without solicitation, a patent of nobility to Oberkampf, the German mechanic whom Louis XV. had not permitted to follow royal hunt.
Two years later, when the Revolution began, this boble distinction bestowed upon Oberkampf became serious danger. The recent date of his parchments, and his simple good sense and frank character, averted the evil; and he was permitted to hide away, and forger his title of nobility with his emblazoned coat of arms. "Liberty and Fraternity" could not well be alarmed by the sturdy mechanic who had risen by his own industry and merit.
In 1789 his copartnershio with demaraise expired. It had lasted twenty-five years, and Demaraise now wished to retire from active life. His fortune was ample, for the profits to be divided amounted to the large sum of $1,800,00. The intercourse between the partners had always been confiding and friendly, and they separated with mutual esteem.
This perios marked an epoch in the history of the establishment, for it was the moment of transiton from the old system to new progress. Improvements of every nature had indeed been effected, but now science was to perform its wonders; chemistry and mechanics, so long confined to the laboratory, were now to be applied to active industry.
Prosperity had not alienated the affections of Oberkampf from his family. When his parents, his brother-in-law, ad a married sister died, he called their young families around him, and gave them the advantages of a careful education. To each of his nephews he gave successively an interest in the manufactory, and was rewarded by their intelligence and devotion, - more especially in the case of his eldest nephew, Samuel Widmer, who became a distinguished chemist and mechanic, and rendered important services to his uncle.
The great chemists of the age, Berthollet, Chaptal, Monge, and Chevreul, were in constant communication with Jouy, and Gay-Lussac was employes to give courses of lectures upon chemistry and physics to the foremen and workmen of the print-works. They would come to Jouy, when any new combination or new process was conceived by them, with their pockets filled with samples; and Oberkampf and Widmer were ever ready tp test them upon a large scale, and thus ascertain their application and value. Many, very many, were worthless; but many brilliant exceptions served to mark the constant progress obtained by the application of science to industry. The system of bleaching with chlorine, discovered by Berthollet, was here first applied, and Widmer at once established a laboratory to produce this useful material.
The sanguinary Revolution still pursued its course, and the excitement spread in every direction. Partly to obey the instinct of the moment, and partly as a politic precaution, Oberkampf caused a large design of the "Féte of the Federation" at the Champs de Mars to be engraved with great care for furniture-hangings. The success was extraordinary, and gave a somewhat new direction to the print-works. Eminent artists, such as Huet, Lebas, and Demarne, were employed to produce a series of large designs; but Oberkampf, with good sense and prudence, abandoned political subjects. The Wolf and the Lamb, The Lion in Love, Psyche and Cupid, Don Quixote, and others, were produced in succession with marked success. In smaller designs, natural flowers were copied with care and precision; and the flora of distant lands contributed their curious and graceful flowers, dexked in all the gorgeous colors of the tropics.
Oberkampf again found himself crowded for room, and decided to erect an immense building, in which his workmen would be more at ease, and in consequence produce still more perfect work. A plan by an architect of Paris was adopted, and at once carried into execution. An immense hall on the lower floor, lighted by eighty-eight windows, was devoted to printing. In the first story were the offices, and the rooms occupied by the engravers and designers upon wood and copper, as well as printing-rooms for shawls. Here, too, was the store-room for blocks, where all were carefully preserved, for many were found worthy of several editions. In the next story were placed the finishers, where three hundred women were seated at long tables completing or correcting the coloring of the rich designs. Over all was an immense, lofty garret, open upon every side, which served as a deying-room. Here the long depending cloths of every hue, swaying back and forth in the wind, gave a brilliant and picturesque appearance to the building. They were called the banners of Jouy. This building was finished in 1792, and during the year the prosperity of the establishments continued unabated, notwithstanding the vast political agitation of the moment; but soon misery crept slowly but surely upon the people, and the demand rapidly declined.
The excitement and madness of the Revolution had long since reached the quiet village of Jouy. Public meetings had been called, clubs had been formed, and political festivities been celebrated, but fortunately all the municipal authority of the place was concentred in the hands of Oberkampf. He was himself the mayor; two of his foremen were sub-mayor and secretary; and his nephew, Samuel Widmer, was the commander of the militia. Oberkampf did not attempt to oppose the torrent of public excitement, but wisely allowed it to expend itself in violent speeches, and still more violent resolutions, but he carefully watched their development into active operation, and was thus enabled to protect soviety and himself.
He was, of course, obliged to contribute largely of his wealth, as we may judge nu a few notes found among his papers. He first made a patriotic gift of $10,000, then gave $1,600 to equip and pay ten volunteers, then a forced loan to the nation of $5,000, then a so-called voluntary loan of $15.000, then $600 to equip a cavalry soldier, then a war-contribution of $3.500, - all these in addition to the very heavy taxes imposed upon his property and upon his manufactory. By acceding promptly and cheerfully to these exactions, he maintained the character of a good citizen and a friend of the country, but this did not secure him from occasional alarm. On the 19th February, 1794, a gendearme brought him a summons to appear the next day, at eleven o'clock, before a committee at the Hôtel de Toulouse (now the Bank of France). At the foot was written the ominous notice, "Exactitude rigorously required." Oberkampf at once obeyed. A scheme for raising ten millions of dollars "to save the country" was laid before him. It was in the form of sixty notes, the payment of which was to be guaranteed by forty-four of the principal bankers and merchants. Oberkampf's signature was required. He did not hesitate to sign the bonds, - indeed, it would have been dangerous to manifest any unwillingness, and then returned to Jouy calmly to await the result. A long while afterwards he learned that these notes could not be employed, and that they had been finally destroyed.
Two months later, Oberkampf was denounced as a suspected moderate, a hidden royalist, a monopolizer, - in a word, a rich man. These charges were more than sufficient to bring him before the Revolutionary Tribunal and lead him to the scaffold. Fortunately, a member of the committee was friendly to Oberkampf, and, although a violent Jacobin, he defended him with courage, and succeeded in averting the blow. The first intimation to Oberkampf of the danger he had run was made by a communication from the terrible Committee of Public Safety, who sent him a certificate of civism, declaring the manufactory useful to the Republic, and requiring Oberkampf, his wife, and children to continue it. The hand of a friend was visible in this certificate, for the "wife and children" proteced by it had nothing to do with the factory, which, indeed, had never suspended operation. Many of the workmen had been drawn away, either to Paris or to the army; but every good workmen found employment at the print-works, and, what was more, was paid in coin so long as it was possible to procure it. When this could no longer be obtained, the agent in Paris sent down whole bales of bank-bills, fresh from the press, and on pay-day three women were employed in cutting them apart.
A few months afterwards, Oberkampf received an alarming visitor. In June 1794, a carriage drove into the courtyard, and a tall, elegant young man sprang lightly to the ground, and gave his hand to a young and beautiful lady to aid her to descend; a robust servant immediately stretched himself into the carriage, and withdrew in his arms a third person, whom he carried into the saloon. This person was the redoubtable George Couthon, a monster of cruelty, who, with Robespierre and St. Just, governed and instigated the terrible atrocities of the Committee of Public Safety. The "virtuous and tenderhearted Couthon," as his adherents were pleased to call him, took an active part in spreading spies and informers in every direction, and with their aid covered France with guillotines. His personal appearace was not at all fearful, for his pale, regular features expressed calm confidence, if not benignity and dignity. He was dressed with care, for the Jacobins did not affect roughness either in manner or dress. He wore powder, and his manners were polite, although cold and formal. He appeared to be of medium height, but his bust alone existed, - the lower part of his body being completely paralyzed. Oberkampf received him with quiet self-possession, but with difficulty suppressed a sentiment of detestation and fear. Citizen Couthon was, of course, invited to visit the manufactory, and Widmer carried him in his arms from story to story, while Oberkampf explained to him all the interesting processes of manufacture. The party then returned to the house, where refreshments were offered. Great care was taken that the repast should be extremely simple and frugal; for famine was abroad, and sumptuous living was not merely an impropriety, it was crime which led directly to the scaffold. Wheat flour was extremely scarce, and the bread served was coarse and dark. To the surprise of every one, Couthon firected the servant to bring a small basket from the carriage, in which, carefully enveloped in a napkin, lay a few delicate white loaves, with their rich brown crust, for which Paris is renowned. Couthon made no remark upon this aristocratic luxury, in which he alone dare indulge, but polite offered it to all. Commerce and the feats of the great army of the nation were the only subjects of conversation, which was constrained and guarded. It was therefore with a sensation of great relief that Widmer once more placed Couthon in his carriage, who, after having briefly expressed his satisfaction and his thanks, drove away, leacing behind him distrust and apprehension. To the surprise of all, no disastrous results ensued from this visit.
The overthrow of Robespierre brought peace and partial security, and active operations recommenced at Jouy. In the year 1797 this activity received an immense impulse by the invention of printing with rollers. The principal honor of this invention is due to Widmer, but he was greatly aided by the counsel and encouragements of Oberkampf. Widmer had long dreamed f substituting rollers fro blocks, and at length, after many failures, succeeded in realizing his dream by establishing his machine at Jouy. The progress was immense, for the machine printed fifty-five hundred yards per day, the work of forty-five printers.
The engraving of the rollers was a difficult, costly, and long process, and Widmer set himself at work to obercome this objection. After three years of laborious thought and costly experience, he at last succeeded, and produced a machine which greatly aided in engraving the rollers. This was established in the year 1800. The successes of Napoleon and the establishment of the Empire gave a strong impulse to the activity of the print-works, which now employed fourteen hundred workmen. It had been intimated to Oberkampf that he might aspire, under the new régime, to the dignity of senator. But the simplicity of his character remained unchanged, and he positively refused the high honor.
In the month of June, 1806, a Garde de Chasse in the Imperial livery entered Jouy at a sharp gallop, and a rode at once to the manufactory. He announced the visit of the Emperor. The news spread with rapidity, and every one quitted his occupation to rush to the court-yard. A few moments later the Emperor, accompanied by the Empress Josephine, drove into the same court-yard where, a few years since, Couthon had brought fear and dismay. But now a dense crowd of workmen and villagers received their visitor with unbounded enthusiasm. Addreassing a few words to Oberkampf, with his customary rapidity, he proposed at once to visit the printing machine. it was put in operation, and, to the surprise and admiration of all, the white cloth was drawn under the rollers and printed at the rate of eight yards per minute. At a signal the rollers were changed, and a new design printed. Napoleon frequently expressed his satisfaction, and then visited every part of the manufactory, asking with great rapidity the most searching questions, which tazed all the attention of his host to answer. With ready tact he conversed with the foremen and workmen, and excited the enthusiam of all about him. He then returned to the court-yard, and was again surrounded by the crowd, ahile every window of the immense building was filled by the workmen. The favorable moment had come. Napoleon detached the Cross of the Legion of Honor which he wore, and placed it with his own hand upon the breast of Oberkampf, exclaiming, in a firm voice, that none were so worthy to wear it. This high military honor, bestowed in so marked and public a manner upon civilian, gave great satisfaction, not only to the friends of Oberkamf, but to the whole commerce of the country, which claimed its share on this occasion, and felicitations from every province were addressed to Oberkampf.
The fourth Exposition of National Industry took place in the year 1806, and for the first time the manufactory of Jouy sent a brilliant collection of its products, and received the gold medal.
The succeeding years were marked by two inventions. The method of printing a solid green color in one application, and the heating of colors by steam.
In the year 1810 the Emperor Napoleon invited Oberkampf, the "patriarch" or the "seigneur" of Jouy, as he familiarly called him, to visit him at the Palace of St. Cloud. Oberkampf was accompanied by Samuel Widmer, who wished to solicit a favor from the Emperor. Napoleon received them in his usual manner, addressing rapid, searching, almost offensive questions to Oberkampf and to Widmer. "They tell me you are wealthy, - was not the first million the most difficult to gain? Have you children? Will your son continue your business, or will he, as is more usual, dissipate your forune?" &c., &c. He discussed the tariff, and when Oberkampf remarked that the duty on cotton was excessive, "O," replied the Emperor, "I only take what the smugglers would get," and added, in an excited voice, "I will have all the English and Swiss cotton goods burned. I have given three millions to plant cotton in the plains of Rome. Is not that better than giving them a Pope?" In his memoirs, dictated by himself at St. Helena, speaking of the Continental system, he remarks, "I consulted Oberkampf." So indeed he did, but he did not listen to his advice.
The interview was brought to a close by the usual question, "Have you anything to ask?" Oberkampf replied that his nephew, Widmer, was very desirous to visit the manufactories of England. The Continental system was strictly applied at that moment, and no one could visit England without a passport signed by the Emperor's own hand. Napoleon replied with some impatience, "What can he see there? What can he learn? Well, well, I will send him a passport." A few days afterwards the desired document was received.
In the mids of this honorable but laborious prosperity, Oberkampf did not escape the trials and afflictions of life. Illness and death had visited his devoted friends in their old age. In 1810 he lost Ludwig Rohrdorf, the last of his early associates around the printing-table of Jouy. He, like the rest, had shared in the prosperity of the factory, and left a fair property. Being unmarried, his heirs, who resided in Switzerland, proved their unlimited confidence in the probity of Oberkampf by requesting him to liquidate the succession without process at law.
The sturdy Oberkampf himself did not appear to feel the fatigues of advancing age. He had long wished to free himself from depence upon the manufactories of printing-cloths, and to convert the bale of raw cotton into pieces of printed calicoes within his own works. His son-in-law, Mr. Louis Feray, being fully competent to direct a mill, Oberkampf established one at Essonne, and another at Corbeil for his brother Fritz, both for the manufacture of printing-cloths. His brother preferred to retire from commerce; Oberkampf received back the mill, and maintained it in activity.
The fall of Napoleon in 1814, and the invasion of the Allied armies, suspended work at Jouy. For the first time the manufactory was closed. A recommenvement of activity was arrested by the return of Napoleon from Elba in 1815, when Jouy was once more occupied by foreign troops. Many farms with theis buildings had been destroyed, and every one was anxious for the safety of the manufactory; for, although work had again ceased, yet the building had never before been so crowded with occupants. All the poor families of the outskirts, who had the most to fear, were permitted to bring their furniture and worldly goods to the manufactory, and there they found protection and support.
The buildings escaped destruction, and, when peace returned, active operations were again commenced. But anxiety, distress, and severe labor could no longer be borne with impunity by Oberkampf at his advanced age. He became feeble, and his health began to fail, when a severe cold brought on a fever which proved fatal. He expired on the 4th of October, 1815, and ended an hoborable and useful life of seventy-seven years, surrounded by his family and by his numerous friends. A son and three daughters (all married) survived their parent.
The manufactory was continued six years longer by the son, Emile Oberkampf, and by the nephew, S. Widmer. Upon the death of Widmer, Emile Oberkampf associated with him a new partner, to whom he was soon obliged by ill-health to cede the paternal establishment. The prosperity of the manufactory seemed, however, to be attached to the name and family of Oberkampf; for, when separated from them, it languished and dexlined. It was converted into a joint-stock company, but without success, and a few years afterward was discontinued, and the property sold. The principal building alone now remains.
The decline of the manufactory at Jouy does not in any way indicate the decline of calico-printing in France, for the impulse given by Oberkampf has been fully sustained by the great progress continually made. One examines with surprise the wonderful printing of Mulhouse, upon the gossamer, airy tissue of muslin, which one would think of incapable of bearing the rich colors and designs with which it is impregnated. The town of Mulhouse is now the seat of the perfection of calico-printing, but Rouen and many other towns can well boast of their productions.
The family of Oberkampf did not desert the humble village of Jouy. They retained the dwelling-house, and constantly visited the village and the families of the old workmen, who long experienced their active and generous charity.
The small building called the House by the Stone Bridge, in which Oberkampf printed the first piece of calico at Jouy, was offered for sale, and the daughters of Oberkampf hastened to purchase it. They enlarged and improved it, and converted it into an asylum for young children. All the children of the village were here collected for the day, and received the care and the instruction their age required. They were provided with meals, and even those living at a distance were brought to the asylum in an omnibus, and carried home at night. Assuredly this was a noble monument of gratitude and charity to the memory of their father.
We need not add that his name will never be forgotten in the village of Jouy. The principal street bears the name of Oberkampf, and the patriarchs of the village recall with pride the splendors of the times of the great factory.
["Manufacturers and Inventors." By Urbain Pages.]
In this age of liberty and of individual enterprise, when every one can freely choose his occupation and pursue it without let or hindrance, we with difficulty appreciate the all but insurmountable abstacles with restrictive and prohibitory laws, and the jealous exclusiveness of trade corporations, once presented to a youg and aspiring mechanic.
In the early ages of their history, these trade corporations were indeed the first rallying-points of liberty for the mechanic. They were, at first, secret societies, formed for mutual defence against the lawless and tyrannical exactions of the feudal lords, so continually engaged in private warfare with each other; but, as each trade naturally clustered together, these societies soon became trade corporations. Their bumbers and discipline made them formidable. Privileges were granted them and free towns established, in the government of which they took an active part; and the feudal lords were gradually forced to refrain from the cruel and ruinous oppression they had so long practised. But the oppressed readily become oppressors, and these corporations did not escape the general law. They became jealous, tyrannical, and exclusive. Improvement, progress, or innovation of any nature, was rejected by them with indignation and alarm; and time-honored customs and vexatious regulations met the mechanic in every direction. All that his father had done the son might do, but no more. His pay, his hours of work, the number of his apprentices, indeed, every detail, was strictly regulated by his corporation. From these trammels there was no escape, for an independent workman could not find employment. He was even forbidden to exercise his calling, and frequently was banished from town or village for insubordination. In a word, he was excluded from the right of earning his bread. It is, however, but fair to add, that, during illness or accidental incapacity, the workman and his family received from the corporation of which he was a member all the necessaries, and many of the comforts, of life. We cannot, therefore, be surprised that the domineering influence of these corporations or trade-unions continued long after the causes that led to their formation had disappeared.
The arbitrary laws and customs of trade corporations we can readily ascribe to jealous and unenlightened selfishness; but how can we explain, or even concelve, that patriotic and enlightened statesmen have clung with so much tenacity, through so many ages, to restrictive and prohibitory enactments and to sumptuary laws? the first forbidding industry, the other forbidding consumption! and yet every page of history tells us that such laws were enforced even to our own times.
Calico-printing in France suffered from all these causes; for, when these goods were first introduced, the extensive and powerful corporation of the weavers, and the corporation of the dyers, were greatly alarmed. They made every effort to suppress them, and positively forbade any member of their corporations to engage in this work. Through their clamor and influence they at length induced the government to issue decrees strictrly prohibiting the printing calicoes in France.
Notwithstanding the prohibitions and the heavy duties exacted at the frontiers, printed calicoes became fashionable; but the demand was almost wholly supplied by smugglers, who, in the very high prices obtained, found ample remuneration for the risks incurred.
The constant increase of smuggling, and the consequent decline of the revenue, together with the great umber of persons continually condemned for this offence to the galleys, and even to death, at length alarmed the Council of Trade, and induced them to propose more liberal measures. But such measures, then as now, met with violent opposition. Committees and deputies were despatched from Tours, Rouen, Rheims, Beauvais, and many other manufacturing towns, to remostrate with the ministers. They did not hesitate to affirm that foreign competition would utterly annihilate commerce and manufactures, and they conjured their sovereign not to take the bread of life from the poor weavers and their wives and children! The evil was, however, serious and increasing; for partial combats and loss of life were continually occuring near the frontiers. After a laborious examination and long hesitation, the council decided in favor of liberty; and Louis XV., in the year 1759, issued a royal decree, permitting the printing of calicoes in his kingdom of France. These decrees at once called individual enterprise into action; but it was principally to a German and a Protestant - to Christopher Philippe Oberkampf - that France is indebted for one of its most productive manufactures, which has given profitable employment to vast numbers of its inhabitants, and has markedly advanced the properity of the nation.
The history of this intelligent and indefatigable mechanis is, indeed, the history of the first successful establishment of calico-printing in France; and we are greatly indebted to the family and descendants of this extraordinary man for having confided the archives of their family to Mr. Urbain Pages, and to this distinguished author for his valuable and interesting history.
Christopher Philippe Oberkampf was born on the 11th of June, 1738, at Wissemback, a small town of Würtemburg. His father was a dyer, - an expert and laborious workman, and withal a strict Lutheran. In his youth he had made long peregrinations from town to town, supporting himself, as was then the custom, by working at his trade in every place he visited; employment being obtained for him by the dyer's corporation of each locality.
In this excellent school of experience he learned many new processes and new combination of colors, and acquire the art of dyeing in reserve, - that is to say, dyeing cloths in any color, but reserving the design in the ground-color of the material, which was generally white. He also learned to print on woollen goods.
After his return home, he discovered a method of producing a new color. This discovery gave him the well-merited reputation of being an expert and intelligent dyer and printer, and induced a large manufacturer of Bale, in Switzerland, to make him an advantageous offer of employment. These offers he accepted, with the express stipulation that his son, the eleven years old, should be received as an apprentice, and be instructed in drawing and engraving. The family made their journey to Bale on foot, and young Christopher marched quite proudly beside his father, with his bundle tied to a stick over his shoulder, thinking himself already wuite a man, and soon to become a smart workman. He was a bright, courageous boy, full of good-humor and of all the happy confidence of youth.
At Bale his father at once began work, and his son commenced his apprenticeship with the humble occupation of spreading colors upon the blocks his father used. The bright, inquisitive boy, ever ready to be useful, and anxious to learn, amused the workmen with his ready wit and cheerfulness, and soon made so favorable an impression that all were willing to explain to him the mysteries of their prodession and to initiate him into the secrets of their art. These mysteries consisted principally of caluable receipts for making or mixing colors, and were universally held as profound secrets. During the three years of his fatheräs engagement at Bale young Christopher made rapid progress in designing and engraving, - studies to which he devoted himself with unusual constancy.
The engagement ended, his father removed to Larrach, near Bale, and then to Schaffsheim, when, having by industry and economy laid by a small sum, but, above all, by strict religious honesty having acquired the condifence of all about him, he established (in1755) small print-works at Aarau, Switzerland. He was then principally occupied in printing calicoes. He was moderately successful, and the magistrates of the canton, anxious to encourage this new industry, which gave occupation to its citizens, and thus retained them at home, bestowed upon him the distinction and advantages of citizenship. This was no slight favor, for it was then more difficult to obtain than the more artistocratic titles bestowed by kings and princes.
Young Oberkampf was now an expert workman, for he had learned practically every operation, whether important, or secondary, and theoretically, all that Switzerland could teach him. The field his father had chosen soon became too narrow and limited for him, and he longed ardently to see the world. This desire grew stronger with his strength, and, after long hesitation, he informed his father of his wishes. The father would not listen to the proposition, for young Chrisropher was now a valuable aid to him, and he had destined him to be his successor. A century ago parental authority was quite absolute, and it was not only sustained by public sentiment, but also was amply enforced by legal enactments. There seemed, therefore, for young Oberkampf no other course but to resign himself to his hard fate. His imagination, however, still dwelt upon the attractions of the outer world, and at length obtained the mastery; for, having secured the implied consent of his mother, he furtively quitted his father's house, and launched himself into the great world. He first went to Mulhouse, already celebrated for its beautiful productions. Mulhouse was then a free city, and a firm ally of the Swiss Cantons. There be obtained employment as an engraver in the celebrated print-works of Samuel Koechlin and Henri Dolfus. Forty years later, in 1798, Mulhouse was incorporated into France.
The elder Oberkampf was naturally indignant at his conduct; but time wore away the sharp edge of his father's anger, and the influence of his mother finally obtained his pardon. After an absence of six months, he returned home, but with the express understanding that he might leave again at his pleasure.
His restless desires soon returned, and in October, 1793, when twenty years old, he determined to visit Paris, and from there go to Spain, where he had been told a new field was open to him. Once more he journeyed on foor, and reached the great city with his purse nearly empty, but with a strong heart full of courage, energy, and confidence.
Calico-printing in France was still strictly prohibited, but, from some unexplained reason, a small section of Paris, called the "Clos of St. Germain," enjoyed an exlusive privilege for printing. This privilege was propably a remnant of some ancient concessions made to the monastery of St. Germains, for in feudal times the monks alone gave protection to honest industry.
Under the protection of this privilege, a person named Cotin had established print-works. He was already known to Oberkampf, for Cotin had frequently sent to Switzerland for workmen, and to him Oberkampf now applied for employment to help him on his way. A designer, engraver, colorist, and printer, all united in one person, was a godsend to Cotin, and he at once secured the prize by a long engagement. The print-works soon felt the impulse given to it by the laborious and ardent young workman. It was while thus occupied that rumors of a change of policy on the part of the government, of its intention to repeal the prohibitory laws, were circulated, and naturally attracted the attention and excited the hopes of Oberkampf; and when at length the Decrees were published, he was exceedingly anxious to profit by them. He was intelligent, laborious, and a complete master of his trade; but the one thing needful, capital, he did not possess, and could not command. He had indeed amassed by strict economy, almost privation, the sum of one hundred and twenty-five dollars; but this was not capital, and yet it was the grain of mustard-seed which developed itself into wide-spread prosperity.
The print-works of Cotin had long been in embarrassment, and were now sustained by mere expedients. Payments were made with great difficulty, and then only by heavily loading the future. Cotin lost credit, and in consequence purchased his white cloths and dye-stuffs under great disadvantages. At length he was unable to pay his workmen regularly; and one by one they deserted him, until Oberkampf found himself almost alone. Although Oberkampf obtained with difficulty and delay the payment of his wages, a strong sentiment of probity, which in after life never deserted him, prevented him from breaking en engagement by which he still felt himself bound. Poor Cotin could not replace the absent workmen, and at the very moment when the recently published Decrees were about to give new life to his enterprise he was forced to close his works, and Oberkampf was free to form a new connection.
One of his countrymen named Tavanne, who held a small post under the Comptroller-General of Finance, had obtained early notice of the Decrees, and, full of confidence in the brilliant prospect about to be opened, had realized a small capital, and had employed it in establishing small print-works in the Rue de Seine St. Marcel. He was well acquainted with Oberkampf, and had made great efforts to induce him to join him, but Oberkampf refused so long as his engagement with Cotin continued. He had, however, promised to join him as soon as he was free to do so; and in the mean time had given valuable indications and advice to Taveanne, who thought it indispensable to be the first in the field. As soon as the Decrees were published, he commenced work. Oberkampf now joined Tavanne, who had impatiently waited for him. A short experience convinced Oberkampf that the works were badly located. Why remain in the city, to be continually obershadowed by dust and smoke, where land was dear, and water at a distance? and, above all, where the bustrle, excitement, and temptations of city life were continually distracting the attention of the workmen? Oberkampf insisted upon removing to the country, and at length prevailed upon Tavanne to seek for a favorable position. This was soon discovered, and, after several visits, a new location was selected.
About three miles from Versailles, and fifteen miles from Paris, lies the peaceful village of Jouy-en-Josas. It was a small hamlet, composed of a few cottages grouped around the church, and placed in a deep valley, - the hills on each side being covered with woods. Near it flowed the river Biévre, which watered the green prairies at the bottom of the valley. The position seemed to unite every advantage. The water was excellent and abundant, the green field could be had at a moderate price, and the seclusion of the valley secured it from the interruptions and the attractions of city life.
Oberkampf at once decided his partner in its favor, and noticing a small unoccupied house, having a grass-field attached to it, he proposed to Tavanne to secure it at once. After long bargaining, it was leased for nine years at a moderate rent. A few days afterwards, in the spring of 1760, Oberkampf, with his brother Fritz, whom he had called to him, and two workmen, transferred to this new scene of labor the implements of their trade, where a house-carpenter put them in place. It was a narrow field, for the house was so small that it was impossible to place it the large kettle used for heating and mixing the colors employed. Like the camp-kettle of a regiment, it was bravely placed in the open air in the yard. The remainder of the implements filled the house, leaving no place for furniture of any kind. In consequence, the printing-table was required to do triple duty; for, after a laborious day, a matress placed upon it served for a bed; and upon it was spread their frugal meals brought from the village, at the moderate price of eight cents each.
This was the humble origin of one of the most extensive and prosperous manufactures of France.
Work commenced with great ardor, and, on the 1st of May, 1760, Oberkampf printed the first piece of calico. There could be no division of labor among the four workmen; each became designer, colorist, or printer, as occasion rewuired; and at the end of two months a sufficient quantity of calicoes had been printed to be sent to market. Unfortunately, the commercial partner was not in any way equal to the manufacturer. Tavanne, having furnished the funds, had reserved for himself the sale of the goods; but unluckily he was quite incompetent. He could not effect sales nor provide funds for the white cloths purchased, and twhich were fast falling due. Perplexed and alarmed, he informed Oberkampf of his unfortunate dilemma. Oberkampf was not responsible for any losses incurred; but he at once gave his one hundred and twenty-five dollars to Tavanne, and then, with his usual energy, sought for aid to meet the difficultied of the situation.
An aqcuaintance of Tavanne, a Mr. Parent, first clerk of the Comptroller of finance at Versailles, had often visited the print-works, and had remarked the intelligence and industry of Oberkampf. To him Oberkampf applied for counsel. Mr. Parent received him in a friendly manner, and, as his position placed him in frequent communications with the merchants of Paris, he offered to apply to one of them for aid. He explained the affairs of Jouy to a silk-merchant of Paris (whose name is not mentioned), and induced him to make the necessary advances to meet the engagements of Tavanne, upon the condition that all the printed goods should be consigned to him for sale, and, in addition, that he should have a share in the profits. The merchant soon discovered that the print-works were profitable, and that Oberkampf was the cause of its success. Being a keen, shrewd man, he manoeuvred in such a manner as to disgust Tavanne with the whole affair, and finally bought of him all his interest in the business for the small sum of twelve hundred dollars. Not content with this, he further induced the candid and confiding Oberkampf to convey to him a part of his share of the profits. A drone had entered the hive, and was taking to himself the honey collected by the working bees.
The friendly interest of Mr. Parent had been excited, and he soon perceived, with regret, that the interests of Oberkampf were being sacrified by the grasping shrewdness of the merchant. He now cast about for a remedy. He proporsed another partner, who was ready to embark the large sum of ten thousand dollars in the business, for one third of the profits. This capital would place the printworks upon a solid basis, and Oberkampf accepted the proposition with great joy. The silk - merchant was greatly annoyed, but, fearing he might lose Oberkampf, he was forced to consent.
The new partner was Mr. Sarasin Demaraise, an advocate of Grenoble, who had, however, long resided in Paris. He was a learned and successful adcovate, but had always felt a strong inclination fro commerce, which he preferred, indeed, to his own occupation. He was an excellent man; and Oberkampf and himself naturally drew together, and soon became warm friends. With the consent of the partners, the books and countability of the print-works were confided to Mr. Demaraise, and the manufactory of Jouy now boasted of an office in Paris. The sale of the merchandise still remained in the hands of the merchant.
Erelong, Mr. Demaraise discovered that the merchant had secured to himself undue advantages; and the legal acumen of the advocate soon detected flaws and omissions in the original contract with Tavanne, and in the transfer to the merchant. This demaraise communicated to Oberkampf, showing him conclusively that he was working for another. He proporsed to him to unite, and drive the drone from the hive. With some reluctance and hesitation, Oberkampf consented. The merchant positively refused to sell to them his share of the business, even after the irregularities in his contract had been explained to him, and a suit at law was commenced.
To the advocate, Mr. Demaraise, a lawsuit was a pleasant matter; but to Oberkampf it seemed full of care, uncertainty, and alarm. Other cause of anxiety had arisen. He and his workmen were Protestants, and the inhabitants of the village were ill disposed towards this little colorny of strangers and heretics.
These causes of preoccupation and anxiety weighed heavily upon Oberkampf, when, unluckily, a freshet of the river laid his drying-field under water at the moment when his cloths were exposed. Oberkampf and his workmen plunged into the water to rescue the cloths. The next morning sharp pains and fever confined him to his bed; and there he remained several weeks, suffering all the pangs of severe nervous rheumatism. The vigor of youth and the strenght of his constitution, aided by a short visit to Switzerland, with the gentle care of his mother, at length gave him the victory.
In the mean while, the lawsuit made slow progress; but the friendly Mr. Parent once more offered his services, and at length effected a compromise. The belligerent advocate, Mr. Demaraise, was very unwilling to accede to it, but the influence of Mr. Parent and the urgent solicitations of Oberkampf at length prevalled. The drone was permitted to withdraw from the hive, well laden with honey.
A new co-partnership was now formed under the name of Sarasin Demaraise, Oberkampf, and Co.; and the partners, relieved from all embarrassments, determined to carry out their plans with activity and energy.
It is well known that cotton cloths have been printed in India from time immemorial; but there the outline of design alone was printed; all the colors were afterwads painted in by hand. For this reason, these goods, in France, were called "toiles peints, " or painted cloths, and they still retain the name. This industry was therefore in India more that of an artist than of a printer, and could be carried on only in a country when the price of labor was reduced to its lowest limits. In Europe all the colors were printed in the same manner as the outline; but for a long time the result was very imperfect and unsatisfactory, and at the same time slow and expensive. The colors were difficult to manage, for chemistry had not yet lent its aid. Nor had mechanics been applied, for block-printing alone was practised.
It may be well to explain to the uninitiated this simple process. A design was drawn upon a bloch of wood, of which the surfaces had been accurately smoothed, and repeated upon as many blocks as there were colors in the design; suppose three colors, - red, blue, and green. On the surface of the first block all but red color was cut away, and the red printed on the cloth. On the second block, all nut the blue was cut away, and this block was applied precisely to the place where the red block had been placed, and printed the blue color; and so with the geen. If the blocks were applied with precision, the result would be the design printed in three colors. It will be readily perceived, that, if each block is not applied with mathematical precision, the design will be awry, and very imperfect, if not destroyed, and thus occasion great loss of labor, materials, and cloth.
A few colors, such as indigo blue and some others, were still applied by hand, - generally by women, with small hair brushes.
It was all-important, therefore, to sevure the best workmen. This was very difficult, if not impossible, in France, where the corporations of the weavers and of the dyers exerted so much authority, and Oberkampf was forced to seek them in Germany and in Switzerland. He supplied his father and his brother-in-law Widmer, at Aarau, with the necessary funds to make advances to any good workman who was willing to come to Paris. In this way he secured the services of Rohrdorf and Hapber, both excellent designers; and of Bossert, a talented engraver. These three remained with him until their death, and formed a very superior staff of foremen. They always lived in friendly fellowship with Oberkampf, - taking their meals with him at the printing-table, - and shared his recreations whenever opportunities occurred. When more prosperous times came, they always resided at his house, and dined at his more luxurious table.
Every one now worked with ardor, and all were soon rewarded by evident success. Their designs were greatly admired, and the printing was so very superior that their goods met with a ready sale. The profits, too, augmented rapidly. The first year gave but $1,50 to $1,800, but the second year showed a gain of nearly $12,000. This great success determined the partners to enlarge their premises. The small house had indeed received many additions, but it was still too small and inconvenient. The capitalist, Demaraise, was ready to invest more of his fortune in so profitable an affair, and their credit was excellent; but this success was troubled by local annoyances.
The pious susceptibilities of the curate of Jouy were alarmed by the influx of Swiss workmen, most of whom were Protestants, and complaints had been made to the local authorities. Goodhumored patience and generous contributions gradually enlightened the curate and the mayor to their true interests, and their oppositions subsided; but a moer difficult obstacle remained. The partners required more land; but the seigneur of the village, the Marquis of Beuvron, had been annoyed by the establishment of the print-work in the quiet valley of which he was the principal proprietor, and so near to the chateau which he occupied. He coldly, but positively, refused to sell or let a prairie near the print-works, which had now become indispensable to its extension. He was, however, a generous and enlightened gentleman, and soon learned to respect the industry, integrity, and intelligence of his unwelcome neighbors. Nor could he refuse to noknowledge that the neighborhood and his own estate had profited by their presence. At lenght, after long solicitation, seconded by the liberal price offered, and by a generous present to the Marchioness, as was the custom of the age, ge consented to allow them to take the land they so earnestly desired.
The new building was commenced in 1764, and completed two years afterwards. Among other improvements made, a canal was dug from the river, the sides and bottom of which were well puddled with clay, and then incased with thick oaken planks. In this basin the cloths could be washed in perfect safety.
The establishment now assumed large proportions; for Oberkampf, while making great exertions to produce beautiful designs, enriched with brilliant colors, did not neglect to produce less expensive goods at a moderate price, within the reach of the great mass of consumers. The goods were called Mignonettes, from the nature of the designs, which consisted of small running flowers and vines, varied in disposition and color according to the taste of the moment or of the market to which they were destined .The sale of this class of goods was immense, for they penetrated into the most secluded corners of France.
The prosperity of the new establishment soon extended to the village, where houses were built, and waste lands cultivated, to supply the requirements of the increasing population, attracted by good wages and certain employment.
The reputation oft he print-works was now fully established; but it is an old maxim, that reputation can be maintained only by constant progress. To this end Oberkampf directed all his energy. He established a washing-mill to replace hand labor, and continually simplified and perfected every operation. When his brother brought from Switzerland a design engraved upon copper, he did not hesitate to adopt this innovation for fine work, notwithstanding the great additional expense.
This constant labor of mind and body could not, however, be sustained without recreation and relaxation. He built for himself and friends a moderate house, and at times indulged his passion for horses. He had two or more always in his stable, and a shart canter, in company with one of his foremen, over the neighboring hills, was a favorite diversion. Upon one occasion, the baying of hounds gave notice that the royal hunt was near. Louis XV., surrounded by a brilliant cortége of bobles, of nobles, huntsmen, and servants, swept by; and Oberkampf and his companion, carried away by the excitement, and thinking no harm, followed after at a respectful distance. Louis XV. remarked them, and inquired, "Who are those gentlemen so well mounted?" Upon being told, he coldly observed they would do better to remain at their factory, rather than lose their time in folloring his hunt, the observation was at once carried to Oberkampf, who, with his usual good sense, without any sign of anger, replied, "His Majesty is right, and we will profit by his counsel," and at once withdrew.
Oberkampf had remained unmarried; but he now decided to share his prosperity with another. He had long been acquainted with a Protestant family of Sancerre, and in that family he chose his wife. His dwelling-house and grounds were englarged and improves, but his marriage with Miss Palineau was celebrated in Paris. Mrs. Oberkampf was an accomplished musician, many of his Swiss foremen were good performers, and in the royal band at Versailles, near by, there were many Germans, who were soon in friendly relations with Jouy. The liberal hospitality of Oberkampf attracted them to his house, and upon Sundays and féte days, indeed upon every occasion, his house was crowded with musicians and artists; and music and the dance alternated with more serious theatricals and conversation.
Upon one occason the tutor of the royal princes brought them to visit the establishment, and Oberkampf explained the divers operations to the future Louis XVI., Louis XVIII., and Charles X., who successively occupied the throne of France. The last, then called Count d'Artois, attempted to print, but the blocks were too heavy for his hand.
In 1782 Oberkampf met with a cruel misfortune. His wife, while attending one of her children, ill with the smallpox, contracted the disease, and became its victim.
In the mean while, the unfortunate Louis XVI. had succeeded to the throne of France. Ever anxious to encourage national industry, and t o reward merit, he conferred, in 1783, the title of Royal Manufactory upon the print-works of Jouy; and, four years later, he granted, without solicitation, a patent of nobility to Oberkampf, the German mechanic whom Louis XV. had not permitted to follow royal hunt.
Two years later, when the Revolution began, this boble distinction bestowed upon Oberkampf became serious danger. The recent date of his parchments, and his simple good sense and frank character, averted the evil; and he was permitted to hide away, and forger his title of nobility with his emblazoned coat of arms. "Liberty and Fraternity" could not well be alarmed by the sturdy mechanic who had risen by his own industry and merit.
In 1789 his copartnershio with demaraise expired. It had lasted twenty-five years, and Demaraise now wished to retire from active life. His fortune was ample, for the profits to be divided amounted to the large sum of $1,800,00. The intercourse between the partners had always been confiding and friendly, and they separated with mutual esteem.
This perios marked an epoch in the history of the establishment, for it was the moment of transiton from the old system to new progress. Improvements of every nature had indeed been effected, but now science was to perform its wonders; chemistry and mechanics, so long confined to the laboratory, were now to be applied to active industry.
Prosperity had not alienated the affections of Oberkampf from his family. When his parents, his brother-in-law, ad a married sister died, he called their young families around him, and gave them the advantages of a careful education. To each of his nephews he gave successively an interest in the manufactory, and was rewarded by their intelligence and devotion, - more especially in the case of his eldest nephew, Samuel Widmer, who became a distinguished chemist and mechanic, and rendered important services to his uncle.
The great chemists of the age, Berthollet, Chaptal, Monge, and Chevreul, were in constant communication with Jouy, and Gay-Lussac was employes to give courses of lectures upon chemistry and physics to the foremen and workmen of the print-works. They would come to Jouy, when any new combination or new process was conceived by them, with their pockets filled with samples; and Oberkampf and Widmer were ever ready tp test them upon a large scale, and thus ascertain their application and value. Many, very many, were worthless; but many brilliant exceptions served to mark the constant progress obtained by the application of science to industry. The system of bleaching with chlorine, discovered by Berthollet, was here first applied, and Widmer at once established a laboratory to produce this useful material.
The sanguinary Revolution still pursued its course, and the excitement spread in every direction. Partly to obey the instinct of the moment, and partly as a politic precaution, Oberkampf caused a large design of the "Féte of the Federation" at the Champs de Mars to be engraved with great care for furniture-hangings. The success was extraordinary, and gave a somewhat new direction to the print-works. Eminent artists, such as Huet, Lebas, and Demarne, were employed to produce a series of large designs; but Oberkampf, with good sense and prudence, abandoned political subjects. The Wolf and the Lamb, The Lion in Love, Psyche and Cupid, Don Quixote, and others, were produced in succession with marked success. In smaller designs, natural flowers were copied with care and precision; and the flora of distant lands contributed their curious and graceful flowers, dexked in all the gorgeous colors of the tropics.
Oberkampf again found himself crowded for room, and decided to erect an immense building, in which his workmen would be more at ease, and in consequence produce still more perfect work. A plan by an architect of Paris was adopted, and at once carried into execution. An immense hall on the lower floor, lighted by eighty-eight windows, was devoted to printing. In the first story were the offices, and the rooms occupied by the engravers and designers upon wood and copper, as well as printing-rooms for shawls. Here, too, was the store-room for blocks, where all were carefully preserved, for many were found worthy of several editions. In the next story were placed the finishers, where three hundred women were seated at long tables completing or correcting the coloring of the rich designs. Over all was an immense, lofty garret, open upon every side, which served as a deying-room. Here the long depending cloths of every hue, swaying back and forth in the wind, gave a brilliant and picturesque appearance to the building. They were called the banners of Jouy. This building was finished in 1792, and during the year the prosperity of the establishments continued unabated, notwithstanding the vast political agitation of the moment; but soon misery crept slowly but surely upon the people, and the demand rapidly declined.
The excitement and madness of the Revolution had long since reached the quiet village of Jouy. Public meetings had been called, clubs had been formed, and political festivities been celebrated, but fortunately all the municipal authority of the place was concentred in the hands of Oberkampf. He was himself the mayor; two of his foremen were sub-mayor and secretary; and his nephew, Samuel Widmer, was the commander of the militia. Oberkampf did not attempt to oppose the torrent of public excitement, but wisely allowed it to expend itself in violent speeches, and still more violent resolutions, but he carefully watched their development into active operation, and was thus enabled to protect soviety and himself.
He was, of course, obliged to contribute largely of his wealth, as we may judge nu a few notes found among his papers. He first made a patriotic gift of $10,000, then gave $1,600 to equip and pay ten volunteers, then a forced loan to the nation of $5,000, then a so-called voluntary loan of $15.000, then $600 to equip a cavalry soldier, then a war-contribution of $3.500, - all these in addition to the very heavy taxes imposed upon his property and upon his manufactory. By acceding promptly and cheerfully to these exactions, he maintained the character of a good citizen and a friend of the country, but this did not secure him from occasional alarm. On the 19th February, 1794, a gendearme brought him a summons to appear the next day, at eleven o'clock, before a committee at the Hôtel de Toulouse (now the Bank of France). At the foot was written the ominous notice, "Exactitude rigorously required." Oberkampf at once obeyed. A scheme for raising ten millions of dollars "to save the country" was laid before him. It was in the form of sixty notes, the payment of which was to be guaranteed by forty-four of the principal bankers and merchants. Oberkampf's signature was required. He did not hesitate to sign the bonds, - indeed, it would have been dangerous to manifest any unwillingness, and then returned to Jouy calmly to await the result. A long while afterwards he learned that these notes could not be employed, and that they had been finally destroyed.
Two months later, Oberkampf was denounced as a suspected moderate, a hidden royalist, a monopolizer, - in a word, a rich man. These charges were more than sufficient to bring him before the Revolutionary Tribunal and lead him to the scaffold. Fortunately, a member of the committee was friendly to Oberkampf, and, although a violent Jacobin, he defended him with courage, and succeeded in averting the blow. The first intimation to Oberkampf of the danger he had run was made by a communication from the terrible Committee of Public Safety, who sent him a certificate of civism, declaring the manufactory useful to the Republic, and requiring Oberkampf, his wife, and children to continue it. The hand of a friend was visible in this certificate, for the "wife and children" proteced by it had nothing to do with the factory, which, indeed, had never suspended operation. Many of the workmen had been drawn away, either to Paris or to the army; but every good workmen found employment at the print-works, and, what was more, was paid in coin so long as it was possible to procure it. When this could no longer be obtained, the agent in Paris sent down whole bales of bank-bills, fresh from the press, and on pay-day three women were employed in cutting them apart.
A few months afterwards, Oberkampf received an alarming visitor. In June 1794, a carriage drove into the courtyard, and a tall, elegant young man sprang lightly to the ground, and gave his hand to a young and beautiful lady to aid her to descend; a robust servant immediately stretched himself into the carriage, and withdrew in his arms a third person, whom he carried into the saloon. This person was the redoubtable George Couthon, a monster of cruelty, who, with Robespierre and St. Just, governed and instigated the terrible atrocities of the Committee of Public Safety. The "virtuous and tenderhearted Couthon," as his adherents were pleased to call him, took an active part in spreading spies and informers in every direction, and with their aid covered France with guillotines. His personal appearace was not at all fearful, for his pale, regular features expressed calm confidence, if not benignity and dignity. He was dressed with care, for the Jacobins did not affect roughness either in manner or dress. He wore powder, and his manners were polite, although cold and formal. He appeared to be of medium height, but his bust alone existed, - the lower part of his body being completely paralyzed. Oberkampf received him with quiet self-possession, but with difficulty suppressed a sentiment of detestation and fear. Citizen Couthon was, of course, invited to visit the manufactory, and Widmer carried him in his arms from story to story, while Oberkampf explained to him all the interesting processes of manufacture. The party then returned to the house, where refreshments were offered. Great care was taken that the repast should be extremely simple and frugal; for famine was abroad, and sumptuous living was not merely an impropriety, it was crime which led directly to the scaffold. Wheat flour was extremely scarce, and the bread served was coarse and dark. To the surprise of every one, Couthon firected the servant to bring a small basket from the carriage, in which, carefully enveloped in a napkin, lay a few delicate white loaves, with their rich brown crust, for which Paris is renowned. Couthon made no remark upon this aristocratic luxury, in which he alone dare indulge, but polite offered it to all. Commerce and the feats of the great army of the nation were the only subjects of conversation, which was constrained and guarded. It was therefore with a sensation of great relief that Widmer once more placed Couthon in his carriage, who, after having briefly expressed his satisfaction and his thanks, drove away, leacing behind him distrust and apprehension. To the surprise of all, no disastrous results ensued from this visit.
The overthrow of Robespierre brought peace and partial security, and active operations recommenced at Jouy. In the year 1797 this activity received an immense impulse by the invention of printing with rollers. The principal honor of this invention is due to Widmer, but he was greatly aided by the counsel and encouragements of Oberkampf. Widmer had long dreamed f substituting rollers fro blocks, and at length, after many failures, succeeded in realizing his dream by establishing his machine at Jouy. The progress was immense, for the machine printed fifty-five hundred yards per day, the work of forty-five printers.
The engraving of the rollers was a difficult, costly, and long process, and Widmer set himself at work to obercome this objection. After three years of laborious thought and costly experience, he at last succeeded, and produced a machine which greatly aided in engraving the rollers. This was established in the year 1800. The successes of Napoleon and the establishment of the Empire gave a strong impulse to the activity of the print-works, which now employed fourteen hundred workmen. It had been intimated to Oberkampf that he might aspire, under the new régime, to the dignity of senator. But the simplicity of his character remained unchanged, and he positively refused the high honor.
In the month of June, 1806, a Garde de Chasse in the Imperial livery entered Jouy at a sharp gallop, and a rode at once to the manufactory. He announced the visit of the Emperor. The news spread with rapidity, and every one quitted his occupation to rush to the court-yard. A few moments later the Emperor, accompanied by the Empress Josephine, drove into the same court-yard where, a few years since, Couthon had brought fear and dismay. But now a dense crowd of workmen and villagers received their visitor with unbounded enthusiasm. Addreassing a few words to Oberkampf, with his customary rapidity, he proposed at once to visit the printing machine. it was put in operation, and, to the surprise and admiration of all, the white cloth was drawn under the rollers and printed at the rate of eight yards per minute. At a signal the rollers were changed, and a new design printed. Napoleon frequently expressed his satisfaction, and then visited every part of the manufactory, asking with great rapidity the most searching questions, which tazed all the attention of his host to answer. With ready tact he conversed with the foremen and workmen, and excited the enthusiam of all about him. He then returned to the court-yard, and was again surrounded by the crowd, ahile every window of the immense building was filled by the workmen. The favorable moment had come. Napoleon detached the Cross of the Legion of Honor which he wore, and placed it with his own hand upon the breast of Oberkampf, exclaiming, in a firm voice, that none were so worthy to wear it. This high military honor, bestowed in so marked and public a manner upon civilian, gave great satisfaction, not only to the friends of Oberkamf, but to the whole commerce of the country, which claimed its share on this occasion, and felicitations from every province were addressed to Oberkampf.
The fourth Exposition of National Industry took place in the year 1806, and for the first time the manufactory of Jouy sent a brilliant collection of its products, and received the gold medal.
The succeeding years were marked by two inventions. The method of printing a solid green color in one application, and the heating of colors by steam.
In the year 1810 the Emperor Napoleon invited Oberkampf, the "patriarch" or the "seigneur" of Jouy, as he familiarly called him, to visit him at the Palace of St. Cloud. Oberkampf was accompanied by Samuel Widmer, who wished to solicit a favor from the Emperor. Napoleon received them in his usual manner, addressing rapid, searching, almost offensive questions to Oberkampf and to Widmer. "They tell me you are wealthy, - was not the first million the most difficult to gain? Have you children? Will your son continue your business, or will he, as is more usual, dissipate your forune?" &c., &c. He discussed the tariff, and when Oberkampf remarked that the duty on cotton was excessive, "O," replied the Emperor, "I only take what the smugglers would get," and added, in an excited voice, "I will have all the English and Swiss cotton goods burned. I have given three millions to plant cotton in the plains of Rome. Is not that better than giving them a Pope?" In his memoirs, dictated by himself at St. Helena, speaking of the Continental system, he remarks, "I consulted Oberkampf." So indeed he did, but he did not listen to his advice.
The interview was brought to a close by the usual question, "Have you anything to ask?" Oberkampf replied that his nephew, Widmer, was very desirous to visit the manufactories of England. The Continental system was strictly applied at that moment, and no one could visit England without a passport signed by the Emperor's own hand. Napoleon replied with some impatience, "What can he see there? What can he learn? Well, well, I will send him a passport." A few days afterwards the desired document was received.
In the mids of this honorable but laborious prosperity, Oberkampf did not escape the trials and afflictions of life. Illness and death had visited his devoted friends in their old age. In 1810 he lost Ludwig Rohrdorf, the last of his early associates around the printing-table of Jouy. He, like the rest, had shared in the prosperity of the factory, and left a fair property. Being unmarried, his heirs, who resided in Switzerland, proved their unlimited confidence in the probity of Oberkampf by requesting him to liquidate the succession without process at law.
The sturdy Oberkampf himself did not appear to feel the fatigues of advancing age. He had long wished to free himself from depence upon the manufactories of printing-cloths, and to convert the bale of raw cotton into pieces of printed calicoes within his own works. His son-in-law, Mr. Louis Feray, being fully competent to direct a mill, Oberkampf established one at Essonne, and another at Corbeil for his brother Fritz, both for the manufacture of printing-cloths. His brother preferred to retire from commerce; Oberkampf received back the mill, and maintained it in activity.
The fall of Napoleon in 1814, and the invasion of the Allied armies, suspended work at Jouy. For the first time the manufactory was closed. A recommenvement of activity was arrested by the return of Napoleon from Elba in 1815, when Jouy was once more occupied by foreign troops. Many farms with theis buildings had been destroyed, and every one was anxious for the safety of the manufactory; for, although work had again ceased, yet the building had never before been so crowded with occupants. All the poor families of the outskirts, who had the most to fear, were permitted to bring their furniture and worldly goods to the manufactory, and there they found protection and support.
The buildings escaped destruction, and, when peace returned, active operations were again commenced. But anxiety, distress, and severe labor could no longer be borne with impunity by Oberkampf at his advanced age. He became feeble, and his health began to fail, when a severe cold brought on a fever which proved fatal. He expired on the 4th of October, 1815, and ended an hoborable and useful life of seventy-seven years, surrounded by his family and by his numerous friends. A son and three daughters (all married) survived their parent.
The manufactory was continued six years longer by the son, Emile Oberkampf, and by the nephew, S. Widmer. Upon the death of Widmer, Emile Oberkampf associated with him a new partner, to whom he was soon obliged by ill-health to cede the paternal establishment. The prosperity of the manufactory seemed, however, to be attached to the name and family of Oberkampf; for, when separated from them, it languished and dexlined. It was converted into a joint-stock company, but without success, and a few years afterward was discontinued, and the property sold. The principal building alone now remains.
The decline of the manufactory at Jouy does not in any way indicate the decline of calico-printing in France, for the impulse given by Oberkampf has been fully sustained by the great progress continually made. One examines with surprise the wonderful printing of Mulhouse, upon the gossamer, airy tissue of muslin, which one would think of incapable of bearing the rich colors and designs with which it is impregnated. The town of Mulhouse is now the seat of the perfection of calico-printing, but Rouen and many other towns can well boast of their productions.
The family of Oberkampf did not desert the humble village of Jouy. They retained the dwelling-house, and constantly visited the village and the families of the old workmen, who long experienced their active and generous charity.
The small building called the House by the Stone Bridge, in which Oberkampf printed the first piece of calico at Jouy, was offered for sale, and the daughters of Oberkampf hastened to purchase it. They enlarged and improved it, and converted it into an asylum for young children. All the children of the village were here collected for the day, and received the care and the instruction their age required. They were provided with meals, and even those living at a distance were brought to the asylum in an omnibus, and carried home at night. Assuredly this was a noble monument of gratitude and charity to the memory of their father.
We need not add that his name will never be forgotten in the village of Jouy. The principal street bears the name of Oberkampf, and the patriarchs of the village recall with pride the splendors of the times of the great factory.
7.6.09
Warokaa maalilaatikoita!
Pohjois-Suomi 22, 17.3.1880
Eräs lyseolainen, jolla on ollut tapana silloin tällöin lomahetkinä huwitella itseänsä pienillä maalauksilla ja joka tässä työssä, kuten pojat ainakin, wälistä on kostuttanut penseliä suussaan, kuuluu joutuneen hywin arweluttawaan tilaan. Maalit owat epäilemättä sisältäneet myrkkyä, sillä pojassa kuuluu olewan selwät myrkytyksen merkit. Minkä werran myrkkyä maaleissa on woinut olla, ei saateta saada selwille, koska pojan wanhempi weli säikäyksissään oli heittänyt laatikon maalineen tuleen.
Eräs lyseolainen, jolla on ollut tapana silloin tällöin lomahetkinä huwitella itseänsä pienillä maalauksilla ja joka tässä työssä, kuten pojat ainakin, wälistä on kostuttanut penseliä suussaan, kuuluu joutuneen hywin arweluttawaan tilaan. Maalit owat epäilemättä sisältäneet myrkkyä, sillä pojassa kuuluu olewan selwät myrkytyksen merkit. Minkä werran myrkkyä maaleissa on woinut olla, ei saateta saada selwille, koska pojan wanhempi weli säikäyksissään oli heittänyt laatikon maalineen tuleen.
Bookbinding.
Manufacturer and builder 1, 1892
The bookbinder's craft was at its zenith just before the invention of printing; it has waned since, because nobody would care nowadays to give such prices as were cheerfully paid for books in the days when it took twenty-five months of a patient scribe's work to produce one copy of the Bible. The bindings of such xostly books were works of art. Milan first, we are told, acquired a reputation for its bindings of Spanish leather, arabesqued and gilt, which superseded the old-fashioned bindings of wood, metal, or ivory; but until the close of the fifteenth century the bindings of presentation volumes and of the church books used on the high altars of cathedrals were mostly of solid gold or silver. Bruges has produced some beautiful works of this description, likewise bindings in cloth of gold wrought with silk of many colors. At Ypres, the great cloth mart of North Europe, were first made plain bindings of cloth, embroidered more or less; but these were used only for small volumes of jests and ballads and for the horn-books out of which the children in noble families learned their letters. Venice had a name for its bindings in ivory and woods from the East; Florence, like Ghent in Flanders, abounded in brass artificers, and produced brazen bindings gilt or silvered, each one the work of a master craftsman, for none ventured to make book covers who were not skilled with their tools; but the most gorgeous bindings of all that were made before the invention of printing came from Rome. Here the guild of Italian goldsmiths had its chief hall; and there was always a sure sale for rich bindings of wrought gold, seeing that the kings and potentates who came to visit the Papal See invariably gave and received presents of splendid books.
The bookbinder's craft was at its zenith just before the invention of printing; it has waned since, because nobody would care nowadays to give such prices as were cheerfully paid for books in the days when it took twenty-five months of a patient scribe's work to produce one copy of the Bible. The bindings of such xostly books were works of art. Milan first, we are told, acquired a reputation for its bindings of Spanish leather, arabesqued and gilt, which superseded the old-fashioned bindings of wood, metal, or ivory; but until the close of the fifteenth century the bindings of presentation volumes and of the church books used on the high altars of cathedrals were mostly of solid gold or silver. Bruges has produced some beautiful works of this description, likewise bindings in cloth of gold wrought with silk of many colors. At Ypres, the great cloth mart of North Europe, were first made plain bindings of cloth, embroidered more or less; but these were used only for small volumes of jests and ballads and for the horn-books out of which the children in noble families learned their letters. Venice had a name for its bindings in ivory and woods from the East; Florence, like Ghent in Flanders, abounded in brass artificers, and produced brazen bindings gilt or silvered, each one the work of a master craftsman, for none ventured to make book covers who were not skilled with their tools; but the most gorgeous bindings of all that were made before the invention of printing came from Rome. Here the guild of Italian goldsmiths had its chief hall; and there was always a sure sale for rich bindings of wrought gold, seeing that the kings and potentates who came to visit the Papal See invariably gave and received presents of splendid books.
Muuriashappo värjäyksessä.
Kutoma- ja Paperiteollisuus 11/1907.
Artikkelin Coloriastolle lähettänyt Martti Kujansuu.
Etikkahapon sukulainen muuriaishappo alkaa yhä enemmän voittaa alaa värjäyksessä. Eikä ainoastaan sentähden, että se hinnaltaan on etikkahappoa halvempaa, vaan siksikin, että se monessa suhteessa on tätä edullisempi käyttää. Niinpä puolivillaa värjätessä happamillä väreillä antaa muuriaishappo aivan yhtä tasaisen värin kuin rikkihappokin, eikä lainkaan käy puuvillan kimppuun kuten rikkihapon tiedetään tekevän.
Mutta villan peittaamisessa kaliumibikromatilla, on muuriaishappo nykyisistä käytännössä olevista hapoista voittamaton. Ei ainoastaan sentähden, että se pelkistävän vaikutuksensa kautta kiinnittää miltei suoraan sanoen koko kankaassa olevan kromimäärän villalle.
Ja siten säästää peitta-ainetta. Vaan käy itse värjäyskin paljoa syvemmäksi. Saa tummemman värin, mutta samalla värin todellisen värisävyn näkyviin. Niinpä villaa peitatessa 3% bikromatilla ja 2,5% viinikiveä ei tule lainkaan enemmän kromia villalle kuin 1,5% bikromatia ja 1,5% muuriaishappoa. Meikäläisissä oloissa, joissa kaikista kemiallisista aineista, mitä yleensä värjäyksessä käytetään, saa maksaa tullin ja rahdin tähden hyvän hinnan, ei tämä tosiasia ole niinkään vähäksi arvattava. Sitäkin suuremmalla syyllä, kun värjäyskin samalla tästä ottaa voittaakseen, sekä tummuudessa että loistossa. Mainitsemattakaan värjäyksen saippua ja pesopitoisuutta, joka jää samaksi kuin entisellä tunnetulla tavalla värjätessäkin.
Sivuuttaa ei myöskään voi muuriaishapon käyttöä kankaita vedenpitäviksi tehdessä. Tällöin käytetään sen aluminiumisuolaa. Ja on tällä n. s. muuriaishappoisella aluminiumilla se etu esim. etikkahappoisen aluminiumin rinnalla, ettei se jätä mitään ikävää katkua kankaalle, kuten jälkimäiselle suolalle on ominaista.
Kun muuriaishappo sen lisäksi on antiseptinen aine, siis kaikenlaisten basillien tappaja, voi sillä estää esim. tärkkelysliisterin happanemisen pitemmäksi aikaa.
Muuriashaposta on siis värjäystekniikka saanut varsin sopivan auttajan kaikenkarvaisten epäkohtien poistajana, jotka käytännössä asiain säännöllistä kulkua haittaavat. Suositamme sitä parhaiten ja samalla olkoon sanottu, että sitä valmistaa Nitrit-Fabriken, Köpenikissä lähellä Berliniä.
V. M. J. V.
Artikkelin Coloriastolle lähettänyt Martti Kujansuu.
Etikkahapon sukulainen muuriaishappo alkaa yhä enemmän voittaa alaa värjäyksessä. Eikä ainoastaan sentähden, että se hinnaltaan on etikkahappoa halvempaa, vaan siksikin, että se monessa suhteessa on tätä edullisempi käyttää. Niinpä puolivillaa värjätessä happamillä väreillä antaa muuriaishappo aivan yhtä tasaisen värin kuin rikkihappokin, eikä lainkaan käy puuvillan kimppuun kuten rikkihapon tiedetään tekevän.
Mutta villan peittaamisessa kaliumibikromatilla, on muuriaishappo nykyisistä käytännössä olevista hapoista voittamaton. Ei ainoastaan sentähden, että se pelkistävän vaikutuksensa kautta kiinnittää miltei suoraan sanoen koko kankaassa olevan kromimäärän villalle.
Ja siten säästää peitta-ainetta. Vaan käy itse värjäyskin paljoa syvemmäksi. Saa tummemman värin, mutta samalla värin todellisen värisävyn näkyviin. Niinpä villaa peitatessa 3% bikromatilla ja 2,5% viinikiveä ei tule lainkaan enemmän kromia villalle kuin 1,5% bikromatia ja 1,5% muuriaishappoa. Meikäläisissä oloissa, joissa kaikista kemiallisista aineista, mitä yleensä värjäyksessä käytetään, saa maksaa tullin ja rahdin tähden hyvän hinnan, ei tämä tosiasia ole niinkään vähäksi arvattava. Sitäkin suuremmalla syyllä, kun värjäyskin samalla tästä ottaa voittaakseen, sekä tummuudessa että loistossa. Mainitsemattakaan värjäyksen saippua ja pesopitoisuutta, joka jää samaksi kuin entisellä tunnetulla tavalla värjätessäkin.
Sivuuttaa ei myöskään voi muuriaishapon käyttöä kankaita vedenpitäviksi tehdessä. Tällöin käytetään sen aluminiumisuolaa. Ja on tällä n. s. muuriaishappoisella aluminiumilla se etu esim. etikkahappoisen aluminiumin rinnalla, ettei se jätä mitään ikävää katkua kankaalle, kuten jälkimäiselle suolalle on ominaista.
Kun muuriaishappo sen lisäksi on antiseptinen aine, siis kaikenlaisten basillien tappaja, voi sillä estää esim. tärkkelysliisterin happanemisen pitemmäksi aikaa.
Muuriashaposta on siis värjäystekniikka saanut varsin sopivan auttajan kaikenkarvaisten epäkohtien poistajana, jotka käytännössä asiain säännöllistä kulkua haittaavat. Suositamme sitä parhaiten ja samalla olkoon sanottu, että sitä valmistaa Nitrit-Fabriken, Köpenikissä lähellä Berliniä.
V. M. J. V.
Värjärin tietoa.
Kutoma- ja Paperiteollisuus 11/1907.
Artikkelin Coloriastolle lähettänyt Martti Kujansuu.
(Jatk. N:o 8).
Sueraisi nyt lyhyt selostus niistä kemiallisista aineista, joita varsinaisen värjäyksen ohella värjäri tarvitsee.
Näistä on ensi sijalla mainittava rikkihappo ja sen suolat.
Kun tämä happo on niin sanoaksemme kaiken kemiallisen teollisuuden perusta ja eritoten tärkeä tekijä villan värjäyksessä, ansaitsee se tulla laajemman selonteon alaiseksi.
Rikkihapon kemiallinen kokoumus on H2SO4. Se on siis - kun vedyn merkkinä kemiassa on H, rikin S ja hapen O - kahden vedyn, yhden rikin ja neljän hapen yhdentymä. Ja saanut nimensä siitä, että se syntyy rikistä (tulikivestä) sitä sopivin keinoin hapettamalla.
Tavallinen kaupassa käyvä rikkihappo on Baumé-astelasilla määrättynä 66° väkevää, öljymäistä nestettä, joka usein on väriltään heikosti ruuniin vivahtava. Tämä tulee siitä, että rikkihappo on erikoisesti vettä puoleensa vetävä. Jos nyt vähäinenkin määrä elimellistä ainetta - kuten puuta, olkea, tomua y. m. - sattuu siihen joutumaan, imee se siitä veden ja vedyn ja hapen vetenä itseensä, jolloin jäljelle jäänyt hiili antaa sille ruunin värisävyn. Siinä myöskin syy, miksi veteen sekotettuna samanen happo saa seoksen kuumenemaan. Vaan suuresta vesiahneudestaan. Ja kun tämän tiedämme, emme milloinkaan sekota vettä rikkihappoon, vaan päinvastoin. Sillä kun vesi on rikkihappoa keveämpää, ei se siihen heti sekotu, vaan höyryyntyy ja jos tila on ahdas, saa räjähdyksen aikaan. Tämä on mieleen pantava tosiasia. Muussa tapauksessa voivat seuraukset olla varsin surulliset. Lipeäaineiden kanssa tekee rikkihappo - kuten muutkin hapot - suoloja. Tällöin asettuu lipeäaineiden metallinen osa rikkihapossa vedyn sijalle. Näin on syntynyt lipeäkivestä - joka on natriumimetallin, hapen ja vedyn yhtymä eli siis kemialliselta kokoumukseltaan Na OH - ja rikkihaposta tuo varsin paljon värjäyksessä käytetty glaubersuola. Sen kemiallinen kaava olisi siis Na2SO4.
Glaubersuola eli natriumisulfati - koska rikkihapon suoloja yhteisnimellä mainitaan sulfateiksi - esiintyy kaupassa sekä kauniin kiteisenä että jauhomaisena. Edellinen sisältää kidevettä. Siitä sen kaunis muoto. Jälkimmäinen on kidevedestä vapaa ja on valmistettu kiteisestä muodosta kuumentamalla siitä vesi pois. Tällä näin syntyneellä jauhomaisella glaubersuolalla eli kalsineratulla suolalla on kaupassa se etu, ettei ostajan pitkien matkojen takaa tarvitse ostaa vettä, jota niin vesirikkaassa maassa kuin Suomessa jo kyllältä on. Sillä kiteinen glaubersuola sisältää vettä aina 56%. Siis 100 kilosta suolaa saa ostaja kokonaista 56 kiloa vettä. Ja siksipä tämä vedetön suola rahtikustannusten välttämiseksi on saanut laajan käytännön siellä, missä se muihin olosuhteisiin nähden on käytettävissä. Ja näihin kuuluu etupäässä pehmyt vesi. Sillä kovassa vedessä ottaa vedetön suola varsin huonosti liuotakseen ja saa tällä ominaisuudellaan usein ikävyyksiä ja taloudellisia tappioita aikaan. Sitäpaitsi on jauhomaisessa muodossa oleva kalsinerattu glaubersuola kaikkien väärentäjien sopivana maaperänä, ellei sen suolamäärää ostettaessa visusti tarkisteta. Mutta missä nämä kaksi epäkohtaa ovat poistettavissa, siellä on kalsineratun suolan käyttö todella taloudellinen voitto ja ansaitsee sellaisenaan huomiota.
Milloin näitä eri olomuotoja glaubersuolasta tulee käyttää toistensa asemasta olkoon tähän lisätty, että 25 kiloa kiteistä suolaa vastaa 11 kiloa kalsinerattua.
Paitsi tätä n. s. normaalista natriumsuolaa, löytyy rikkihaposta toinenkin suola n. s. hapan natriumisulfati eli natriumibisulfati, jonka kemiallinen kokoumus on Na HSO4. Siinä siis on rikkihapon vedyistä vielä yksi jäljellä. Se on todella luonteeltaan hapan kuten sen nimikin osoittaa. Mutta vähemmän onnistunut on sen käytännössä käyvä nimi: viinikivipreparati (saks. weinsteinersatz = weinsteinpräparat). Tämän nimensä se on saanut siitä, että sitä villa värjäyksessä voidaan käyttää happaman viinihappoisen kalin asemasta. Ja itse asiassa se tekeekin saman tehtävän kuin tämä ja syntyy jo värihauteessa silloin kuin siihen on pantu glaubersuolaa ja rikkihappoa. Puhtaana ja valmiina suolana sitä sentähden harvemmin käytetäänkin. Vaan valmistetaan se itse värihauteessa. Tietämättään lienevät monet värjärit olleet vuosikymmeniä sen kanssa tekemisissä.
Mitä muuten happaman natriumisulfatin käytäntöön tulee, perustuu se siihen tosiasiaan, että se happamuutensa nojalla pitää rikkihapolla vapaaksi joutuneen väriainehapon liuoksessa. Päästää sen vaan vähitellen värjättäville villasyille.
(Jatk.)
Artikkelin Coloriastolle lähettänyt Martti Kujansuu.
(Jatk. N:o 8).
Sueraisi nyt lyhyt selostus niistä kemiallisista aineista, joita varsinaisen värjäyksen ohella värjäri tarvitsee.
Näistä on ensi sijalla mainittava rikkihappo ja sen suolat.
Kun tämä happo on niin sanoaksemme kaiken kemiallisen teollisuuden perusta ja eritoten tärkeä tekijä villan värjäyksessä, ansaitsee se tulla laajemman selonteon alaiseksi.
Rikkihapon kemiallinen kokoumus on H2SO4. Se on siis - kun vedyn merkkinä kemiassa on H, rikin S ja hapen O - kahden vedyn, yhden rikin ja neljän hapen yhdentymä. Ja saanut nimensä siitä, että se syntyy rikistä (tulikivestä) sitä sopivin keinoin hapettamalla.
Tavallinen kaupassa käyvä rikkihappo on Baumé-astelasilla määrättynä 66° väkevää, öljymäistä nestettä, joka usein on väriltään heikosti ruuniin vivahtava. Tämä tulee siitä, että rikkihappo on erikoisesti vettä puoleensa vetävä. Jos nyt vähäinenkin määrä elimellistä ainetta - kuten puuta, olkea, tomua y. m. - sattuu siihen joutumaan, imee se siitä veden ja vedyn ja hapen vetenä itseensä, jolloin jäljelle jäänyt hiili antaa sille ruunin värisävyn. Siinä myöskin syy, miksi veteen sekotettuna samanen happo saa seoksen kuumenemaan. Vaan suuresta vesiahneudestaan. Ja kun tämän tiedämme, emme milloinkaan sekota vettä rikkihappoon, vaan päinvastoin. Sillä kun vesi on rikkihappoa keveämpää, ei se siihen heti sekotu, vaan höyryyntyy ja jos tila on ahdas, saa räjähdyksen aikaan. Tämä on mieleen pantava tosiasia. Muussa tapauksessa voivat seuraukset olla varsin surulliset. Lipeäaineiden kanssa tekee rikkihappo - kuten muutkin hapot - suoloja. Tällöin asettuu lipeäaineiden metallinen osa rikkihapossa vedyn sijalle. Näin on syntynyt lipeäkivestä - joka on natriumimetallin, hapen ja vedyn yhtymä eli siis kemialliselta kokoumukseltaan Na OH - ja rikkihaposta tuo varsin paljon värjäyksessä käytetty glaubersuola. Sen kemiallinen kaava olisi siis Na2SO4.
Glaubersuola eli natriumisulfati - koska rikkihapon suoloja yhteisnimellä mainitaan sulfateiksi - esiintyy kaupassa sekä kauniin kiteisenä että jauhomaisena. Edellinen sisältää kidevettä. Siitä sen kaunis muoto. Jälkimmäinen on kidevedestä vapaa ja on valmistettu kiteisestä muodosta kuumentamalla siitä vesi pois. Tällä näin syntyneellä jauhomaisella glaubersuolalla eli kalsineratulla suolalla on kaupassa se etu, ettei ostajan pitkien matkojen takaa tarvitse ostaa vettä, jota niin vesirikkaassa maassa kuin Suomessa jo kyllältä on. Sillä kiteinen glaubersuola sisältää vettä aina 56%. Siis 100 kilosta suolaa saa ostaja kokonaista 56 kiloa vettä. Ja siksipä tämä vedetön suola rahtikustannusten välttämiseksi on saanut laajan käytännön siellä, missä se muihin olosuhteisiin nähden on käytettävissä. Ja näihin kuuluu etupäässä pehmyt vesi. Sillä kovassa vedessä ottaa vedetön suola varsin huonosti liuotakseen ja saa tällä ominaisuudellaan usein ikävyyksiä ja taloudellisia tappioita aikaan. Sitäpaitsi on jauhomaisessa muodossa oleva kalsinerattu glaubersuola kaikkien väärentäjien sopivana maaperänä, ellei sen suolamäärää ostettaessa visusti tarkisteta. Mutta missä nämä kaksi epäkohtaa ovat poistettavissa, siellä on kalsineratun suolan käyttö todella taloudellinen voitto ja ansaitsee sellaisenaan huomiota.
Milloin näitä eri olomuotoja glaubersuolasta tulee käyttää toistensa asemasta olkoon tähän lisätty, että 25 kiloa kiteistä suolaa vastaa 11 kiloa kalsinerattua.
Paitsi tätä n. s. normaalista natriumsuolaa, löytyy rikkihaposta toinenkin suola n. s. hapan natriumisulfati eli natriumibisulfati, jonka kemiallinen kokoumus on Na HSO4. Siinä siis on rikkihapon vedyistä vielä yksi jäljellä. Se on todella luonteeltaan hapan kuten sen nimikin osoittaa. Mutta vähemmän onnistunut on sen käytännössä käyvä nimi: viinikivipreparati (saks. weinsteinersatz = weinsteinpräparat). Tämän nimensä se on saanut siitä, että sitä villa värjäyksessä voidaan käyttää happaman viinihappoisen kalin asemasta. Ja itse asiassa se tekeekin saman tehtävän kuin tämä ja syntyy jo värihauteessa silloin kuin siihen on pantu glaubersuolaa ja rikkihappoa. Puhtaana ja valmiina suolana sitä sentähden harvemmin käytetäänkin. Vaan valmistetaan se itse värihauteessa. Tietämättään lienevät monet värjärit olleet vuosikymmeniä sen kanssa tekemisissä.
Mitä muuten happaman natriumisulfatin käytäntöön tulee, perustuu se siihen tosiasiaan, että se happamuutensa nojalla pitää rikkihapolla vapaaksi joutuneen väriainehapon liuoksessa. Päästää sen vaan vähitellen värjättäville villasyille.
(Jatk.)
Värjäysten vaalentamisesta tai hävittämisestä.
Kutoma- ja Paperiteollisuus 11/1907.
Artikkelin Coloriastolle lähettänyt Martti Kujansuu.
(Jatk. N:o 9.)
Viime kymmenen vuoden kuluessa on värien hävittäjänä hydrorikkihapoke (sak. Hydroschwefligeskure) ja sen suolat erikoisesti vetäneet huomiota puoleensa ja saaneet melkoisen käytännönkin. Niillä kun on se erikoinen kyky värien hävittämisessä säästää itse kudonta-ainetta ja sen lisäksi ovat käytettävissä kaikkiin kudonta-aineisiin nähden ilman eroitusta, olipa sitten kysymys puuvillasta, villasta, keinovillasta j. n. e. ja kun niiden käyttö värien hävittämiseen on varsin yksinkertainen, ovat se käyneet miltei yleiskeinoksi, johon ensi sijassa turvaudutaan. Tuskin muuta kuin hyvää niistä tehtäväänsä nähden voipi sanoakaan. Ainoan, mitä niihin moninaisiin nykyään kaupassa tavattaviin hydrorikkihapoketuotteisiin nähden voipi vikana pitää - kulkivatpa nämä sitten nimillä hyrakdutm (väritehdas Cassella & C:o), Hydrosulfit, (väritehdas Höchst) tai Rongalit (väritehdas Friedr. Bayer & C:o) y. m. - on se, että ne meikäläisissä oloissa sittenkään eivät hinnan halpuudessa kykene sen tuotteen rinnalla kilpailemaan, jonka voimme varsin helposti itse valmistaa, ja joka ei ole muuta kuin puhdasta natriumi-hydrorikkihapoketta; tietenkin otaksumalla, että ne raaka-aineet, joista se tehdään, nimittäin sinkkipöly ja natriumbisulfiti, ovat ostettaessa tarkastuksen alaisina. Muuhun käsitykseen ei pääse kun lähemmin ottaa tarkastaakseen niitä märiä erinimisiä hydrorikkihapokkeen suoloja ja etikkahappoa, joita ulkolaiset tehtaat suosittavat käytettäväksi.
Ken siis tähän samaseen kokemukseen on tullut, hän valmistaa samaset värien hävittäjät itse seuraavaan tapaan:
500 cm2 natriumbisulfitiliuosta, joka on 30 à 40° Bé, sekotetaan litraan vettä ja pannaan näin valmistettuun liuokseen värin erin 50 gr sinkkipölyä. Seosta hämmennetään jähdyttäen 10 minutin ajan hyvästi, siksi kunnes pistävä rikkihapoke-käry on hävinnyt. Puolen tunnin päästä on syntynyt natriumihydrosulfitiliuos valmis vedellä laimennettavaksi ja käytettäväksi. Värittömäksi saatavat kankaat, langat tai lumput pannaan tähän liuokseen useamman tunnin ajaksi jopa yöksikin. Jos liuos on kylliksi väkevää, ei mitään lämmittämistä tarvita. Jos se on laimea, auttaa lämmittäminen, mutta samalla menettää liuos väkevyytensä miltei heti. Ja miltei poikkeuksetta ei mikään väri kestä tämän liuoksen pelkistävää vaikutusta, olipa sitten kysymys mille kudonta-raaka-aineelle värjätystä väristä tahansa.
Siinä lyhyesti se mitä värien hävittämisestä ja vaalentamisesta käytäntöön nähden on sanottavaa.
Artikkelin Coloriastolle lähettänyt Martti Kujansuu.
(Jatk. N:o 9.)
Viime kymmenen vuoden kuluessa on värien hävittäjänä hydrorikkihapoke (sak. Hydroschwefligeskure) ja sen suolat erikoisesti vetäneet huomiota puoleensa ja saaneet melkoisen käytännönkin. Niillä kun on se erikoinen kyky värien hävittämisessä säästää itse kudonta-ainetta ja sen lisäksi ovat käytettävissä kaikkiin kudonta-aineisiin nähden ilman eroitusta, olipa sitten kysymys puuvillasta, villasta, keinovillasta j. n. e. ja kun niiden käyttö värien hävittämiseen on varsin yksinkertainen, ovat se käyneet miltei yleiskeinoksi, johon ensi sijassa turvaudutaan. Tuskin muuta kuin hyvää niistä tehtäväänsä nähden voipi sanoakaan. Ainoan, mitä niihin moninaisiin nykyään kaupassa tavattaviin hydrorikkihapoketuotteisiin nähden voipi vikana pitää - kulkivatpa nämä sitten nimillä hyrakdutm (väritehdas Cassella & C:o), Hydrosulfit, (väritehdas Höchst) tai Rongalit (väritehdas Friedr. Bayer & C:o) y. m. - on se, että ne meikäläisissä oloissa sittenkään eivät hinnan halpuudessa kykene sen tuotteen rinnalla kilpailemaan, jonka voimme varsin helposti itse valmistaa, ja joka ei ole muuta kuin puhdasta natriumi-hydrorikkihapoketta; tietenkin otaksumalla, että ne raaka-aineet, joista se tehdään, nimittäin sinkkipöly ja natriumbisulfiti, ovat ostettaessa tarkastuksen alaisina. Muuhun käsitykseen ei pääse kun lähemmin ottaa tarkastaakseen niitä märiä erinimisiä hydrorikkihapokkeen suoloja ja etikkahappoa, joita ulkolaiset tehtaat suosittavat käytettäväksi.
Ken siis tähän samaseen kokemukseen on tullut, hän valmistaa samaset värien hävittäjät itse seuraavaan tapaan:
500 cm2 natriumbisulfitiliuosta, joka on 30 à 40° Bé, sekotetaan litraan vettä ja pannaan näin valmistettuun liuokseen värin erin 50 gr sinkkipölyä. Seosta hämmennetään jähdyttäen 10 minutin ajan hyvästi, siksi kunnes pistävä rikkihapoke-käry on hävinnyt. Puolen tunnin päästä on syntynyt natriumihydrosulfitiliuos valmis vedellä laimennettavaksi ja käytettäväksi. Värittömäksi saatavat kankaat, langat tai lumput pannaan tähän liuokseen useamman tunnin ajaksi jopa yöksikin. Jos liuos on kylliksi väkevää, ei mitään lämmittämistä tarvita. Jos se on laimea, auttaa lämmittäminen, mutta samalla menettää liuos väkevyytensä miltei heti. Ja miltei poikkeuksetta ei mikään väri kestä tämän liuoksen pelkistävää vaikutusta, olipa sitten kysymys mille kudonta-raaka-aineelle värjätystä väristä tahansa.
Siinä lyhyesti se mitä värien hävittämisestä ja vaalentamisesta käytäntöön nähden on sanottavaa.
Beware of Hair-Dyes
Manufacturer and builder 8, 1870
Our office was lately visited by a gentleman whose scalp was dyed with the same dark-brown color as his hair. In the course of conversation he complained of trouble with his eyes, and as most hair-dyes contain substances poisonous to the human system, which in many instances have produced the inflammation called aphthalmia, this did not surprise us. The complaint is well known to physicians, and the best cure for it is to abandon the use of all hair-dyes and cosmetics. The worst of all such preparations are those which are said not to be dyes, but claim to restore the hair to its natural color. One article called "Hair Life" consists principally of lead, sulphur, and lime. Some of these compounds contain tincture of cantharides, a substance which irritates the skin, and after protracted use is apt to produce serious difficulties of a peculiar nature.
Our office was lately visited by a gentleman whose scalp was dyed with the same dark-brown color as his hair. In the course of conversation he complained of trouble with his eyes, and as most hair-dyes contain substances poisonous to the human system, which in many instances have produced the inflammation called aphthalmia, this did not surprise us. The complaint is well known to physicians, and the best cure for it is to abandon the use of all hair-dyes and cosmetics. The worst of all such preparations are those which are said not to be dyes, but claim to restore the hair to its natural color. One article called "Hair Life" consists principally of lead, sulphur, and lime. Some of these compounds contain tincture of cantharides, a substance which irritates the skin, and after protracted use is apt to produce serious difficulties of a peculiar nature.
Artificial Indigo.
Manufacturer and builder 11, 1881
It may interest our readers to know that artificial indigo is now a commercial product, though the cost of its production on a large scale in competition with the natural dyestuff has thus far not been made possible, by reason of its greater cost. It is, nevertheless, an interesting fact to notice that this product has been artificially produced; and it is safe to predict that the removal of economic difficulties that now exist in the ways of its cheap manufacture, is only a question of time, and that the manufacture of the natural dyestuff will speedily have to go the way of the madder culture.
It may interest our readers to know that artificial indigo is now a commercial product, though the cost of its production on a large scale in competition with the natural dyestuff has thus far not been made possible, by reason of its greater cost. It is, nevertheless, an interesting fact to notice that this product has been artificially produced; and it is safe to predict that the removal of economic difficulties that now exist in the ways of its cheap manufacture, is only a question of time, and that the manufacture of the natural dyestuff will speedily have to go the way of the madder culture.
Artificial Products.
Manufacturer and builder 11, 1881
Chemists, says the British Mail, are steadily revolutionizing old processes and ruining old industries by their synthetic methods of making the counterfeits of natural products. The madder industry of France was the first to feel the power of modern chemistry, and now madder is a comparatively useless crop. The coloring principle which was so valuable to the dyer was analyzes by the chemist, and spearated into its elements. But the chemist went farther; he found a comparatively waste substance which, by a little manipulation, would yield just the same proportions. Consequently it must, except under special circumstances, be identical in constitution with the natural product. The indigo planters of India are threatened with a similar extinction, for the coloring matter known as indigo has been synthetically prepared in the chemist's laboratory, and only awaits a cheaper raw material than the indigo plant to gradually bring about the decline of one of the most profitable crops of India. Citric acid is another notable instance of the triumph of synthetical chemistry; and latterly a process of preparing canillin, the essential oil of vanilla, has been patented in this country. By and by chemistry will make for us the most delicate perfumes and the most costly flavors out of the waste substances of other industries.
Chemists, says the British Mail, are steadily revolutionizing old processes and ruining old industries by their synthetic methods of making the counterfeits of natural products. The madder industry of France was the first to feel the power of modern chemistry, and now madder is a comparatively useless crop. The coloring principle which was so valuable to the dyer was analyzes by the chemist, and spearated into its elements. But the chemist went farther; he found a comparatively waste substance which, by a little manipulation, would yield just the same proportions. Consequently it must, except under special circumstances, be identical in constitution with the natural product. The indigo planters of India are threatened with a similar extinction, for the coloring matter known as indigo has been synthetically prepared in the chemist's laboratory, and only awaits a cheaper raw material than the indigo plant to gradually bring about the decline of one of the most profitable crops of India. Citric acid is another notable instance of the triumph of synthetical chemistry; and latterly a process of preparing canillin, the essential oil of vanilla, has been patented in this country. By and by chemistry will make for us the most delicate perfumes and the most costly flavors out of the waste substances of other industries.
Scientific Miscellany. Antimony Blue.
The Galaxy 5, 1872
[Sheldon and Company, New York]
Antimony Blue is the name of a new color, much like ultramarine, but said to be more permanent. It is prepared by dissolving metallic antimony in nitro-muriatic acid, filtering through granulated glass, and adding to the filtrate solution of yellow prussiate of potash as long as any precipitate is formed. It promises to be very useful as a coloring for artificial flowers; and mixed with chrome yellow and zinc yellow it form fine greens, equal to those produced from arsenic, and much less poisonous. It also works well with oil varnishes, gums, glue, and starch, but is decomposed by lime. Boettger is the discoverer.
[Sheldon and Company, New York]
Antimony Blue is the name of a new color, much like ultramarine, but said to be more permanent. It is prepared by dissolving metallic antimony in nitro-muriatic acid, filtering through granulated glass, and adding to the filtrate solution of yellow prussiate of potash as long as any precipitate is formed. It promises to be very useful as a coloring for artificial flowers; and mixed with chrome yellow and zinc yellow it form fine greens, equal to those produced from arsenic, and much less poisonous. It also works well with oil varnishes, gums, glue, and starch, but is decomposed by lime. Boettger is the discoverer.
6.6.09
Köttkorf förfalskad med anilin.
Åbo Tidning 194, 21.7.1885
Anilin i magen är mycket giftigt, men icke desto mindre förekommer det i korf, som köpes uti hr G:s scharkuteri bod i Åbo. Utom att anilinen i sig sjelf är skadlig och naturligen endast användes, när man behöfver fiffs upp gammalt uselt kött, så innehåller den oftast arsenik.
Men denna tid på året är det en "Guds lycka" för de herrar korfmakare, som ha sitt samvete placeradt - ja vi kunna inte säga hvarutan vi säga helst att de äro totalt samvetslösa, - för dem är det skönt att ha färger att tillgå, hvilka göra indian förgadt kött gångbart-det qvittrar lika, om en och annan får sitta emellan, bara affären går bra. Man sminkar en rutten köttbit, som man sminkar en menniska på teatern.
Men de herrar korffabrikanter, som ockra på menniskors behof och okunnighet genom att begagna sig af dylika försköningsmetoder erinras, att det finnes en by, som bestraffar dylikt strängare än en och annan för närvarande tyckes känna.
Anilin i magen är mycket giftigt, men icke desto mindre förekommer det i korf, som köpes uti hr G:s scharkuteri bod i Åbo. Utom att anilinen i sig sjelf är skadlig och naturligen endast användes, när man behöfver fiffs upp gammalt uselt kött, så innehåller den oftast arsenik.
Men denna tid på året är det en "Guds lycka" för de herrar korfmakare, som ha sitt samvete placeradt - ja vi kunna inte säga hvarutan vi säga helst att de äro totalt samvetslösa, - för dem är det skönt att ha färger att tillgå, hvilka göra indian förgadt kött gångbart-det qvittrar lika, om en och annan får sitta emellan, bara affären går bra. Man sminkar en rutten köttbit, som man sminkar en menniska på teatern.
Men de herrar korffabrikanter, som ockra på menniskors behof och okunnighet genom att begagna sig af dylika försköningsmetoder erinras, att det finnes en by, som bestraffar dylikt strängare än en och annan för närvarande tyckes känna.