Suomalainen Wirallinen Lehti 19, 15.2.1872
Virallisesti tulleen ilmoituksen mukaan on Alankomaiden hallitus, estääkseen tarttuwain tautien saattamista Hollanin alusmaihin Judiassa, antanut seuraawat
määräykset:
1 Art.
"Laiwain, joilla wallitsee tarttuwaisia tauteja, jotka uhkaawat yleistä terweydentilaa, niinkuin kolera, keltarutto, Aasian rutto ja rokkotauti y. m., tahi joilla semmoisia tauteja on ollut purjehduksen aikana, kuin myös niiden laiwain, jotka tulewat semmoisesta paikasta, missä tarttuwia tauteja liikkui lähdettäissä, pitää tullessaan johonkin ulkosatamaan Alankomaiden Indiassa kantaman keltaista lippua etumaston nenässä.
2 Art.
Kaikenlainen kanssakäyminen keltaista lippua kantawan laiwan ja maan tahi muiden, ulkosatamassa tai sen läheisyydessä olewain, laiwain wälillä on kielletty, paitsi
niitä tapauksia, jolloin asianomaisten Alankomaiden Poliisiwirastojen tarkastelu tapahtuu.
Jokaisesta tämän kiellon laiminlyömisestä, johon itsensä syypääksi tekee joka laiwallaolija, jospa hän olisi matkustajakin, wetää laiwuri sakkoa 500:sta 1000:een guldeniin Alankomaiden rahaa.
3 Art.
Jos sittemmin tulisi ilmi, ettei laiwa, waikka onkin 1 art:ssa säädettyjen määräysten alainen, tullessaan ole wetänyt ylös keltaista lippua, maksaa laiwuri sakkoa 5000
guldenia Alankomaiden rahaa. Asianomaiset poliisiwirastot antawat sitten tarpeenmukaisen käskyn keltaisen lipun nostamisesta.
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6 Art.
Keltaista lippua on kielletty wetämästä alas asianomaisen Alantomaiden poliisiwiraston lumatta.
Auringonlaskun jälkeen on kaksi sytytettyä lyhtyä asetettawa päällekkäin etumaston nenään.
Jos joku näistä määräyksistä laiminlyödään, wetää laiwuri sakkoa 500:sta 5000 guldeniin Alankomaiden rahaa.
7 Art.
Laiwuri semmoisella laiwalla, jolla keltainen lippu on nostettu, on welwollinen paikalla täyttämään kaikki ne käskyt, jotka asianomaiset poliisiwirastot hänelle antawat.
Tarpeen tullessa täytetään aseellista wäkeä näiden määräysten täyttämisen pakoitukseksi.
8 Art.
Laiwa ja lasti omat myömisen alaiset niiden sakkojen suorittamiseksi, joihin 2, 3 ja 6 art:n mukaan laiwuri saatetaan tuomita.
Jos laiwan ja lastin pakollinen myöminen olisi epämukaista
terweyden suhteen, on laiwanpidätys laiwalla kestäwä eikä e saa lähteä ulos, kunnes sakot on maksettu.
1art. ja 3 art:n 1 mom. saawat laillisen woiman wasta
7:nestä kuukaudesta alkaen sen jälkeen kuin tämä asetus on kuulutettu; kumminkin pitää niiden laiwain, jotka tulewat johonkin ulkosatamaan Alankomaiden Indiassa, olla welwolliset tästä päiwästä asti sattumissa tapauksissa waarinottamaan 3 art:n 2 momenttia kuin myös muita määräyksiä tässä säännössä.''
Joka yleisön tiedoksi tämän kautta ilmoitetaan. Helsingissä, Talous-Osastosta Keisarillisessa Suomen Senaatissa, 31 p. tammikuuta 1872.
Osage Orange To Be Used In Making Dyes
Popular Mechanics, tammikuu 1917
Extensive experiments, which have been in progress for some time, indicate that Osage-orange wood can be utilized for dyeing purposes. It is believed that this fact will not only relieve the situation with regard to the shortage of aniline dyes in certain shades but may eventually replace the use of fustic, a dyewood of which about 4,000 tons are now imported annually from the tropics. It is estimated that the yearly mill waste from the present manufacture of Osage orange is more than 25,000 tons, a fact which gives some indication of the available sypply of this wood. The same dye has been found in the Osage orange as in fustic, and in some respects is more uniform than that in the tropical wood. Among the colors for which it can be used are orange-yellow, old gold, deep tan, olive, and chocolate shades. American manufacturing interests are also taking steps to overcome the present shortage in dyestuffs. A large chemical company, now completing an immense plant in the East, has announced that its principal products will be used in the manufacture of dye materials. This plant, it is said, will be the only one of its kind in the United States.
Extensive experiments, which have been in progress for some time, indicate that Osage-orange wood can be utilized for dyeing purposes. It is believed that this fact will not only relieve the situation with regard to the shortage of aniline dyes in certain shades but may eventually replace the use of fustic, a dyewood of which about 4,000 tons are now imported annually from the tropics. It is estimated that the yearly mill waste from the present manufacture of Osage orange is more than 25,000 tons, a fact which gives some indication of the available sypply of this wood. The same dye has been found in the Osage orange as in fustic, and in some respects is more uniform than that in the tropical wood. Among the colors for which it can be used are orange-yellow, old gold, deep tan, olive, and chocolate shades. American manufacturing interests are also taking steps to overcome the present shortage in dyestuffs. A large chemical company, now completing an immense plant in the East, has announced that its principal products will be used in the manufacture of dye materials. This plant, it is said, will be the only one of its kind in the United States.
Polisi- ja oikeuden-asioita
Porin Kaupungin Sanomia 28, 13.7.1861
5 päiwänä ilmoitti wärjärioppipoika Aleksanteri Johanpoika palwelewa wärjäri Stenbergissä, talossa N:o 8 tämän kaupungin 1:ssä kaup. osassa, että waras tai warkaita edellisenä päiwänä lukittomasta asuinhuoneesta mainitussa talossa luwattomasti wiennyt 1:ksi Aleksanteri Johanpojan omistamia 1 parin saappaita ja 1 mustan nahkasen tupakkakukkaron 2:ksi wärjärikisälli Gustaf Ihanderin omistamia w parin harmaita hamppu-kangaisia housuja ja 1 harmaan willasen leukahuiwin, ja 3:neksi wärjärioppipoika Anshelm Österlundin omistama wähäläntäsen ympyrkäisen peilin. Renkimies Johan Gustaf Tall Haistilan kylästä Ulwilan pitäjää, joka arweltiin tehneen tämän warkauden, haettiin ja on polisimies Nordlundin löytämässä nähty takanansa kätkewän pideltyitä saappaita ja housuja, mistä Johan Gustaf Tall, joka kaupungin wankihuoneeseen on otettuna, myös on asiasta pantuna Kämnerioikeuden tutkittawaksi. Ikään on kaksi onnettomuuden seikkaa tapahtunut kaupungin uutta kirkkoa rakentaissa sillä että kaksi siellä olewista työmiehistä rakennuksen sisäpuolisista tällingstä owat maahan pudonneet ja saanneet kumpikin suuret loukkaukset.
5 päiwänä ilmoitti wärjärioppipoika Aleksanteri Johanpoika palwelewa wärjäri Stenbergissä, talossa N:o 8 tämän kaupungin 1:ssä kaup. osassa, että waras tai warkaita edellisenä päiwänä lukittomasta asuinhuoneesta mainitussa talossa luwattomasti wiennyt 1:ksi Aleksanteri Johanpojan omistamia 1 parin saappaita ja 1 mustan nahkasen tupakkakukkaron 2:ksi wärjärikisälli Gustaf Ihanderin omistamia w parin harmaita hamppu-kangaisia housuja ja 1 harmaan willasen leukahuiwin, ja 3:neksi wärjärioppipoika Anshelm Österlundin omistama wähäläntäsen ympyrkäisen peilin. Renkimies Johan Gustaf Tall Haistilan kylästä Ulwilan pitäjää, joka arweltiin tehneen tämän warkauden, haettiin ja on polisimies Nordlundin löytämässä nähty takanansa kätkewän pideltyitä saappaita ja housuja, mistä Johan Gustaf Tall, joka kaupungin wankihuoneeseen on otettuna, myös on asiasta pantuna Kämnerioikeuden tutkittawaksi. Ikään on kaksi onnettomuuden seikkaa tapahtunut kaupungin uutta kirkkoa rakentaissa sillä että kaksi siellä olewista työmiehistä rakennuksen sisäpuolisista tällingstä owat maahan pudonneet ja saanneet kumpikin suuret loukkaukset.
Synthetic Weather Decides Quality of Paints
Popular Mechanics, heinäkuu 1928
In a relatively few days, men at the bureau of standards determine the quality of paint samples by subjecting them to artificial weather tests. The experiments quickly achieve what would require weeks or years to do under natural conditions. A carbon arc produces the effect of the sun's rays, and water spray and ozonized air duplicate the action of rains and time. According to the investigators, the results of these accelerated tests are strikingly like the effects produced under actual exposure. Instead of trusting to a cisual inspection of the breakdown in the paints, means have been developed for measuring the extent of failure by other methods.
In a relatively few days, men at the bureau of standards determine the quality of paint samples by subjecting them to artificial weather tests. The experiments quickly achieve what would require weeks or years to do under natural conditions. A carbon arc produces the effect of the sun's rays, and water spray and ozonized air duplicate the action of rains and time. According to the investigators, the results of these accelerated tests are strikingly like the effects produced under actual exposure. Instead of trusting to a cisual inspection of the breakdown in the paints, means have been developed for measuring the extent of failure by other methods.
29.1.10
Lappeenrannan kuulumisia III
Itä-Suomen Sanomat 150, 28.12.1895
Lappeenranta 27 p. jouluk. 1895
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Eskon antama "Taiteilijain joululehti" on edessäni. Olen sitä selaillut, sen kuwia katsellut, kumminkaan tuntematta erityistä waikutusta. Kuwat ja piirustukset woiwat nykyajan taiteilijan silmillä katseltuina olla suurestakin arwosta, mutta jos minä mielipiteeni lausun, niin olisin odottanut taiteilijoiltamme arwokkaampaa teosta, kuin minkä he täksi jouluksi owat antaneet. Itse kansikuwakaan ei minua suuresti miellytä. Onhan tuommoista töherrystä, jota ennen muinoin jokainen koulupoika osasi tuhertaa. Mutta ehkäpä se siinä lieneekin se "knappi", joka antaa tuommoisen "schwungin" koko laitokselle. Ainoa hauskutus teoksessa on tuo wiime aikoina puheeksi tullut kysymys, "mitkä owat Suomen kansalliswärit". Mutta ennenkuin tähän kajoan, tahdon lukijakunnalle antaa lyhykäisen referaatin tästä seikasta.
Kuten tunnetaan, on 1860:ltä wuosiluwulta saakka opittu Suomen kansalliswäreinä pitämään sinistä ja walkoista. Wähitellen owat nämät wärit tulleet rakastetuiksi kansankin kesken niin, että kaikissa huweissa koetetaan saada koristukset niin paljon kuin mahdollista sopusointuun näiden wärien kanssa. Naiset, pääasiallisesti siwistyneimmistä luokista, pukeutuwat kesäiseen aikaan pukuihin, joissa siniwalkonen wäri on woitolla. Sama on laita, kun Suomea tahdotaan edustaa ulkomailla, että kukkawihkojen ja seppeleiden nauhat owat sinisen walkoiset.
Kun siis tämä tapa kerran oli tullut yleisesti käytäntöön, kun kansa kerran oli oppinut näissä wäreissä rakastamaan maansa lippua, niin ei kenenkään mieleen olisi luullut juolahtawankaan näiden wärien poistaminen. Niin wi kumminkaan ollut. Kuni kirkkaalta taiwaalta sinkosi wiime syksynä pommi ruotsalaiselta taholta, uhaten kerrassaan tuhkaksi polttaa siniwalkoisen lippumme. Waltion arkistonhoitaja, tohtori R. Hansen, oli kirjastokomeroissaan tutkinut Suomen heraldiikkaa, awakunatiedettä, ja tullut siihen päätökseen, että Suomen kansalliswärit eiwät suinkaan ole sininen ja walkoinen, waan keltanen ja punanen. Tämän keksintönsä julkaisi hän sitten pääkaupungin sanomalehdissä ja hywällä sekä tyytywäisellä mielellä odotteli, minkä waikutuksen tuo "mainio" keksintö aikaan saisi.
Warma hän woitostaan lienee ollut, etenkin kun ruotsinmieliset kilwan kiiruhtiwat omakseen omistamaan nuo wärit. Suomenmieliset paneutuwat wastaan, niiden joukossa maltillisempia ruohikkojakin, ja seurauksena oli, että tästäkin asiasta tehtiin kielikysymys.
Wähitellen laimeni kumminkin kysymys, sillä puolueet oliwat sen jo ratkaisseet siten, että suomalaiset pitäwät wäreinään siniwalkosen ja ruotsikot punakeltaisen. Tosin tiedettiin, että taiteilijayhdistys oli tässä asiassa kääntynyt Suomen mahtimiesten puoleen, saadakseen kuulla näiden mielipidettä, mutta tuo usean mielestä oli turhamaista, sillä mitä kerran on kansaan juurtunut ei sieltä niin pian häwiä.
Joululehdessään julkaisee nyt taiteilijayhdistys nämät pyytämänsä wastaukset. Niitä onkin kokonaista 28. Näistä puolustaa siniwalkoista 17, punakeltaista 7, kelt. pun. ja walkoista 1, ruskeaa ja wiheriää 1, walk. sin. kelt. ja punaista 1 ja siniwalk. ja harmajaa 1. Siis mitä näihin tulee, on siniwalkoinen woitolla ja owat sitä puolustaneet maamme tunnetuimmat henkilöt, kuten esim. professorit E. Aspelin, O. Donner ja E. G. Palmen, waltioneuwokset Th. Rein ja Z. Topelius. Muista mainittakoon hrat A. Kihlman, K. Krohn, ja A. Meurman. Owatpa muutamat ruotsikotkin puolustaneet siniwalkoista, niinkuin hra G.
v. Numers ja "Åbo Tidningin" tunnettu toimittaja G. Cygneus.
Mitä taasen wastausten sattuwaisuuteen tulee, on minusta E. G. Palmén'in paras ja enin walaisewa. Se kuuluu: "Siniwäri on meillä karoliinein ajasta asti kansallinen, ja tällä wuosisadalla Suomi on paraat ilonsa wiettänyt siniwalkoisen lipun suojassa. Sellaista todistusta ei pysty kumoomaan heraldiikki, jos onkin helmalapsena tuoreesta kilwestä riemuitsewille sekä niille, joilla on tulewaisuutensa takanaan. Yhtä hywin sopisi muodostaa käsitteemme luonnonkauneudesta - teaatterikulissien mukaan".
Puuakeltaisen puolustajat omat puhtaita wiikinkejä. Niiden joukkoon on lyöttäytynyt pari taiteilijoistamme, jotka wastauksen owat antaneet, nimittäin hrat A. Edelfelt ja A. Gallén. Edellinen wetoaa hra Hansenin tutkimuksiin sekä siihen, että siniwalkoinen wäri ei lainkaan sowellu, koska sininen ja walkoinen lippukangas näyttää etäälle katsottuna melkein mustalta ja walkoiselta. Tuo on muka pätewä syy siniwalkoisen hylkäämiseksi. Yhtä pätewä minusta olisi punakeltaisen kankaan hylkääminen, sillä se kaukaa katsottuna ehdottomasti näyttää punaiselta. Mutta se tietysti ei tule kysymykseenkään, kun kerran on kysymys ruotsittojen mielipiteestä!
Mitä minua enin on ihmetyttänyt on se, että tohtori Santeri Ingman on antautunut tähän leiriin kysymystä ratkaistessaan. Häneen näet waikuttaa siniwalkoinen "laimentamasti ja kylmästi; punakeltainen taas wilkastuttawasti, lämmittäwästi". Juhani Ahokin kiertelee kysymystä, ehdoittaen ruskean wihreää, joka wäritys mielestäni on jotensakin surkean näköinen.
Olkoonpa miten tahansa tämän kysymyksen laita, pauhattakoon ruotsalaiselta taholla waikka kuinka paljon, sinimalkea se kumminkin tulee olemaan kansalliswärinämme. Ainoa ikäwä tässä wain on, että siinäkin asiassa, jossa koko Suomen kansa, niin suomalaiset kuin ruotsalaiset, on yhtä mieltä, nyt on hajaannus aikaan saatu. Kiittäkäämme ruotsikkoja siitä ja antakaamme heidän liehuttua lippuaan siksi, kunnes sekä lippu että sen liehuttajat katoowat yhteen hautaan. Aiwan kaukana tuo ei liene, sillä kowin horrostilaan on tuon puolueen toiminta joutunut wiime ajoilla.
[---]
Lappeenranta 27 p. jouluk. 1895
[---]
Eskon antama "Taiteilijain joululehti" on edessäni. Olen sitä selaillut, sen kuwia katsellut, kumminkaan tuntematta erityistä waikutusta. Kuwat ja piirustukset woiwat nykyajan taiteilijan silmillä katseltuina olla suurestakin arwosta, mutta jos minä mielipiteeni lausun, niin olisin odottanut taiteilijoiltamme arwokkaampaa teosta, kuin minkä he täksi jouluksi owat antaneet. Itse kansikuwakaan ei minua suuresti miellytä. Onhan tuommoista töherrystä, jota ennen muinoin jokainen koulupoika osasi tuhertaa. Mutta ehkäpä se siinä lieneekin se "knappi", joka antaa tuommoisen "schwungin" koko laitokselle. Ainoa hauskutus teoksessa on tuo wiime aikoina puheeksi tullut kysymys, "mitkä owat Suomen kansalliswärit". Mutta ennenkuin tähän kajoan, tahdon lukijakunnalle antaa lyhykäisen referaatin tästä seikasta.
Kuten tunnetaan, on 1860:ltä wuosiluwulta saakka opittu Suomen kansalliswäreinä pitämään sinistä ja walkoista. Wähitellen owat nämät wärit tulleet rakastetuiksi kansankin kesken niin, että kaikissa huweissa koetetaan saada koristukset niin paljon kuin mahdollista sopusointuun näiden wärien kanssa. Naiset, pääasiallisesti siwistyneimmistä luokista, pukeutuwat kesäiseen aikaan pukuihin, joissa siniwalkonen wäri on woitolla. Sama on laita, kun Suomea tahdotaan edustaa ulkomailla, että kukkawihkojen ja seppeleiden nauhat owat sinisen walkoiset.
Kun siis tämä tapa kerran oli tullut yleisesti käytäntöön, kun kansa kerran oli oppinut näissä wäreissä rakastamaan maansa lippua, niin ei kenenkään mieleen olisi luullut juolahtawankaan näiden wärien poistaminen. Niin wi kumminkaan ollut. Kuni kirkkaalta taiwaalta sinkosi wiime syksynä pommi ruotsalaiselta taholta, uhaten kerrassaan tuhkaksi polttaa siniwalkoisen lippumme. Waltion arkistonhoitaja, tohtori R. Hansen, oli kirjastokomeroissaan tutkinut Suomen heraldiikkaa, awakunatiedettä, ja tullut siihen päätökseen, että Suomen kansalliswärit eiwät suinkaan ole sininen ja walkoinen, waan keltanen ja punanen. Tämän keksintönsä julkaisi hän sitten pääkaupungin sanomalehdissä ja hywällä sekä tyytywäisellä mielellä odotteli, minkä waikutuksen tuo "mainio" keksintö aikaan saisi.
Warma hän woitostaan lienee ollut, etenkin kun ruotsinmieliset kilwan kiiruhtiwat omakseen omistamaan nuo wärit. Suomenmieliset paneutuwat wastaan, niiden joukossa maltillisempia ruohikkojakin, ja seurauksena oli, että tästäkin asiasta tehtiin kielikysymys.
Wähitellen laimeni kumminkin kysymys, sillä puolueet oliwat sen jo ratkaisseet siten, että suomalaiset pitäwät wäreinään siniwalkosen ja ruotsikot punakeltaisen. Tosin tiedettiin, että taiteilijayhdistys oli tässä asiassa kääntynyt Suomen mahtimiesten puoleen, saadakseen kuulla näiden mielipidettä, mutta tuo usean mielestä oli turhamaista, sillä mitä kerran on kansaan juurtunut ei sieltä niin pian häwiä.
Joululehdessään julkaisee nyt taiteilijayhdistys nämät pyytämänsä wastaukset. Niitä onkin kokonaista 28. Näistä puolustaa siniwalkoista 17, punakeltaista 7, kelt. pun. ja walkoista 1, ruskeaa ja wiheriää 1, walk. sin. kelt. ja punaista 1 ja siniwalk. ja harmajaa 1. Siis mitä näihin tulee, on siniwalkoinen woitolla ja owat sitä puolustaneet maamme tunnetuimmat henkilöt, kuten esim. professorit E. Aspelin, O. Donner ja E. G. Palmen, waltioneuwokset Th. Rein ja Z. Topelius. Muista mainittakoon hrat A. Kihlman, K. Krohn, ja A. Meurman. Owatpa muutamat ruotsikotkin puolustaneet siniwalkoista, niinkuin hra G.
v. Numers ja "Åbo Tidningin" tunnettu toimittaja G. Cygneus.
Mitä taasen wastausten sattuwaisuuteen tulee, on minusta E. G. Palmén'in paras ja enin walaisewa. Se kuuluu: "Siniwäri on meillä karoliinein ajasta asti kansallinen, ja tällä wuosisadalla Suomi on paraat ilonsa wiettänyt siniwalkoisen lipun suojassa. Sellaista todistusta ei pysty kumoomaan heraldiikki, jos onkin helmalapsena tuoreesta kilwestä riemuitsewille sekä niille, joilla on tulewaisuutensa takanaan. Yhtä hywin sopisi muodostaa käsitteemme luonnonkauneudesta - teaatterikulissien mukaan".
Puuakeltaisen puolustajat omat puhtaita wiikinkejä. Niiden joukkoon on lyöttäytynyt pari taiteilijoistamme, jotka wastauksen owat antaneet, nimittäin hrat A. Edelfelt ja A. Gallén. Edellinen wetoaa hra Hansenin tutkimuksiin sekä siihen, että siniwalkoinen wäri ei lainkaan sowellu, koska sininen ja walkoinen lippukangas näyttää etäälle katsottuna melkein mustalta ja walkoiselta. Tuo on muka pätewä syy siniwalkoisen hylkäämiseksi. Yhtä pätewä minusta olisi punakeltaisen kankaan hylkääminen, sillä se kaukaa katsottuna ehdottomasti näyttää punaiselta. Mutta se tietysti ei tule kysymykseenkään, kun kerran on kysymys ruotsittojen mielipiteestä!
Mitä minua enin on ihmetyttänyt on se, että tohtori Santeri Ingman on antautunut tähän leiriin kysymystä ratkaistessaan. Häneen näet waikuttaa siniwalkoinen "laimentamasti ja kylmästi; punakeltainen taas wilkastuttawasti, lämmittäwästi". Juhani Ahokin kiertelee kysymystä, ehdoittaen ruskean wihreää, joka wäritys mielestäni on jotensakin surkean näköinen.
Olkoonpa miten tahansa tämän kysymyksen laita, pauhattakoon ruotsalaiselta taholla waikka kuinka paljon, sinimalkea se kumminkin tulee olemaan kansalliswärinämme. Ainoa ikäwä tässä wain on, että siinäkin asiassa, jossa koko Suomen kansa, niin suomalaiset kuin ruotsalaiset, on yhtä mieltä, nyt on hajaannus aikaan saatu. Kiittäkäämme ruotsikkoja siitä ja antakaamme heidän liehuttua lippuaan siksi, kunnes sekä lippu että sen liehuttajat katoowat yhteen hautaan. Aiwan kaukana tuo ei liene, sillä kowin horrostilaan on tuon puolueen toiminta joutunut wiime ajoilla.
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Red Dot On Automobile Tires Guides In Balancing
Popular Mechanics, heinäkuu 1928
Many persons have been mystified by the presence of a small red spot on the side of balloon tires. The mark looks as though a drop of paint had been splashed on the rubber by mistake, but there is nothing careless about it. In fact it has been placed to show exactly where the valve should be fixed in order to maintain balance in the tire. This is done to prevent "shimmying," the weight of the valve being sufficient tot throw the tire out of balance if it is wrongly located. The mark is made on the lighter side of the casing.
Many persons have been mystified by the presence of a small red spot on the side of balloon tires. The mark looks as though a drop of paint had been splashed on the rubber by mistake, but there is nothing careless about it. In fact it has been placed to show exactly where the valve should be fixed in order to maintain balance in the tire. This is done to prevent "shimmying," the weight of the valve being sufficient tot throw the tire out of balance if it is wrongly located. The mark is made on the lighter side of the casing.
(mainos) Pälkäneen Onkkaalassa...
Aamulehti 121, 29.5.1890
Huom.! Pälkäneen Onkkaalassa olewassa wärjäystoimistossani sekä lankakaupassani jota edelleen hoitaa neiti Maria Wiitanen, otetaan wastaan liikkeeni alalle kuuluwia töitä, walmistettawaksi tehtaassani Tampereella. Warastosta löytyy kaikenlaatuisia lankoja myytäwänä tehtaan hintoihin. Tampereella 14 p:nä
H. Liljeroos
Huom.! Pälkäneen Onkkaalassa olewassa wärjäystoimistossani sekä lankakaupassani jota edelleen hoitaa neiti Maria Wiitanen, otetaan wastaan liikkeeni alalle kuuluwia töitä, walmistettawaksi tehtaassani Tampereella. Warastosta löytyy kaikenlaatuisia lankoja myytäwänä tehtaan hintoihin. Tampereella 14 p:nä
H. Liljeroos
(mainos) H. Liljeroos'in Wärjäys- ja Weranwalmistus-tehdas Tampereella
Aamulehti 121, 29.5.1890
H. Liljeroos'in
Wärjäys- ja Weranwalmistus-tehdas Tampereella
Perustettu w. 1851.
Wastaan otetaan: kotukutoisia kankaita wanutettawaksi, wärjättäwäksi ja weraksi walmistettawaksi; puoliwillaisia kankaita prässättäwäksi ja ylileikattawaksi, joten erittäin kamelilankakuteiset kankaat saawat hienon näön; kaikenlaatuisia lankoja painettawaksi kauniin wärisiksi ja mallien mukaan.
Willa-, Pellawa-, Puuwilla- ja Kamelilankoja walkoisia ja wärjätyitä myytäwänä tehtaan hintoihin.
Huom.! Kaikki tawarat mitä minulle uskotaan walistettawaksi, palowakuutan.
H. Liljeroos'in
Wärjäys- ja Weranwalmistus-tehdas Tampereella
Perustettu w. 1851.
Wastaan otetaan: kotukutoisia kankaita wanutettawaksi, wärjättäwäksi ja weraksi walmistettawaksi; puoliwillaisia kankaita prässättäwäksi ja ylileikattawaksi, joten erittäin kamelilankakuteiset kankaat saawat hienon näön; kaikenlaatuisia lankoja painettawaksi kauniin wärisiksi ja mallien mukaan.
Willa-, Pellawa-, Puuwilla- ja Kamelilankoja walkoisia ja wärjätyitä myytäwänä tehtaan hintoihin.
Huom.! Kaikki tawarat mitä minulle uskotaan walistettawaksi, palowakuutan.
Suuri säästö kaikille!
Aamulehti 121, 29.5.1890
Ratkomatta woi ken hywänsä helpolla ja halwalla tawalla samalla kertaa puhdistaa ja uudistaa wärkin kaikenlaatuisilla huonekalukankailla, hameilla, hatuilla j. n. e. kun harjaa wärisaippualla
"Balcam."
Kaikki tulee kuin uudeksi. Saadaan 1m. ja 50 p.
Victor Söderlundilla.
Ratkomatta woi ken hywänsä helpolla ja halwalla tawalla samalla kertaa puhdistaa ja uudistaa wärkin kaikenlaatuisilla huonekalukankailla, hameilla, hatuilla j. n. e. kun harjaa wärisaippualla
"Balcam."
Kaikki tulee kuin uudeksi. Saadaan 1m. ja 50 p.
Victor Söderlundilla.
Stencil Decorating With Lacquers
Popular Mechanics, heinäkuu 1928
By Hobart N. Durham
Stenciling, while mechanical and so simple in its essentials that anyone can master it, nevertheless presents an opportunity for the exercise of one's artistic taste to beautify many of the plainer types of objects found in the home. Above all, the process is flexible, readily adapting itself to the decoration of any material in as simple or as ornate a manner as desired. With a view to showing the basic process and some of its more practical applications, this article describes well-tried methods, which can be readily carried out in the home at a very small outlay, leaving to the reader the choice of combining the essentials and adapting them to his own taste or using them as set forth.
For stenciling of the type to be described, one need purchase only a small quantity of spraying and brushing lacquers of various colors; stencils, which may be bought or easily made, and a stprayer of a type similar to those commonly employed with insecticides. In the commercial adaptation of these processes, air brushes are used, but their price, as a rule, is too hight for the amateur who has only a limited amound of the work to do. The sprayer should have a comparatively small reservoir and a well-made pump, as shown in Fig. 4. This size will make a better spray and waste less of the lacquer in cleaning. Such a sprayer can usually be bought for about 25 cents. As to the lacquers, any of the quick-drying nitrocellulose lacquers will be suitable and small cans of several colors should be on hand. For priming the surface of the material, if of wood, a can of priming lacquer will be found very useful. It is applied before the sprayed coatings.
The stencils can be bought quite cheaply and decorators' stencils will answer very well. If you wish to use your own designs, the stencils may easily be cut at home from either oiled paper or thin celluloid. The designs most suitable for stenciling are massive and should present but little detail, as this complicates the cutting and generally lessens the effect of the completed work. The various illustrations in this article show simple designs which can be artistically arranged, and represent a type best suited to reproduction by the stenciling process.
To cut the stencils from paper or celluloid, one may use either a sharp knife or a safety-razor blade to sever from the sheet those parts which are to be removed. The designs should first be drawn on the sheet. If you are a poor free-hand artist, use celluloid, place the sheet over a design and trace it. In cutting, care should be taken to avoid joining the two ends of a curved line, for if this happens, that portion included within the line will be left without support and will drop out. To avoid this, small "ties" should be left, as shown in Fig. 1, running from the outside of the design, to support the central portion of the stencil. It will also be well to leave these ties in case the design has unstenciled parts jutting into the areas to be stenciled.
Old photographic film, particularly the larger sizes, will be found a good substitute for new celluloid, the emulsion being first removed by soaking the film in hot water. After this cleaning, there still remains a thin coating of gelatin, which will readily take ink, so that the design can easily be drawn on it. One advantage of thin celluloid over paper, is that it need not be cut completely through. It is sufficient to scratch the surface deeply and then bend the celluloid sharply at the scratched line, when it will crack along the line just as if the cut had been made completely through the sheet.
If the ties are accidentally omitted or cut by mistake, a small narrow piece of celluloid or paper, cemented across the gaps, will serve equally well. The cementing can be done with some of the clear lacquer.
For complicated work, which would necessitate an extraordinary number of ties, it is better to use a different type of stencil, which may be made in the following manner: A piece of rather coarse organdie, or other open-mesh fabric, is stretched taut in an embroidery frame of a size considerably larger than the design to be stenciled, and the parts which correspon to the unpainted parts of the design are stopped out with a rather thick solution of glue or gelatin. This may be done with a brush, being careful to apply it only to those parts which are not to allow the color to pass. The glue should be sufficiently thick to fill the meshes, as any pinholes left in the coating will cause undesirable spots of color in the finished work. By holding the stencils to the light after they have been coated and dried, these pinholes may be detected. If any are found, they can be filled in with drops of glue. When the glue has dried, the stencils are ready for use in the same manner as the paper or celluloid stencils, except that, after use, they must be cleaned of the lacquer, which otherwise would remain in the unglued part of the fabric and make the stencil unfit for duplications of the same design.
Having the stencils, the object to be decorated should be given a coat of primer, or undercoat, followed with a coat of lacquer of the color desired for the article as a whole. Thus, if it is desired to produce a gray table with designs of blue, the table should first be given a coating of primer, then a coating of gray lacquer, after which the stencil should be placed on the surface and the blue lacquer applied through the openings in it.
The attaching of the stencil to the surface may be done by means of pins, weights around the edge (if the stencil is to be used in a horizontal position) or in some other way. One very convenient method of fastening stencils is to punch small holes, about &14frac; in. in diameter, around the edges, as well as in the large interior parts, and stick small squares of adhesive tape over those holes on the upper side of the stencil. After a stencil has been applied tot he object in the proper position, it may be fastened firmly by pressing the tape through the holes into contact with the surface of the object. This in no way interferes with the work, and the stencil can be removed readily without marring the finished surface. Enough of these holes and adhesive patches should be provided to insure that all parts of the stencil will lie flat against the work. Should it happen, on removing the stencil, that any of the adhesive remains, it can be wiped off with a cloth moistened with a small amount of lacquer thinner, or carbona.
Of course, the design should be appropriate to the object to be decorated, and equally important, its position should be carefully determined so it will be symmetrical and occupy the proper space, as in Fig. 2. Worngly placed, a deisgn will mar the general appearance as much as it will enchange it if properly placed.
With the stencil firmly secured to the work, the sprayer should be filled with lacquer and pumped a few times to insure a ready, even flow from the nozzle. It is better to have the work in a vertical or tilted position, as in this way the sprayer can be pointed directly at the open parts of the stencil without spoiling the result by any lacquer which might collect on and drip from the nozzle. If the sprayer is held so as to direct the spray perpendicularly to the surface, as shown in Fig. 4, and then moved about while spraying, an even coating will be easily obtained, while, if held at an angle, the spray will diminish in intensity as the distance from the nozzle becomes greater, resulting in an uneven coating. Advantage can easily be taken of this usually undesirable feature, and by intentionally spraying at an angle, the color may be shaded from full strength to a faint suggestion, producing highly decorative effects.
Beautiful blended color effects may be obtained by directing the spray at an angle to produce the greatest intensity at one side of the design and then repeating the process with a different, but harmonious, color from the opposite side. Both colors should be sprayed before the stencil is removed and, if carefully done, the colors will merge into each other in the central portions of the design, enhancing the appearance greatly.
After the spraying has been completed, the stencil is removed. Unless the lacquer has dried thoroughly, this should be done without sliding the stencil over the surface, to avoid smudging the surface and spoling the work. In any case, the best practice is to dorm the habit of lifting the stencil at one corner and pulling it up and away from the surface of the object.
If the stencil has not been held tightly against the surface, it will probably be noticed that the design will have a fuzzy or blurred edge extending slightly beyond the parts which were intended to be colored during the stenciling. The farther the stencil is spaced from the surface, the greater will be this softened edge and the more indistinct the design. If the stencil is spaced only a slight distance from the work, however, this may be put to good advantage in producing soft, pleasing designs of indistinct outline. The effects of various spacings are shown in Fig. 3. The most distinct of these designs was produced by having the stencil in close contact with the surface to be decorated, while the most diffuse was made with the stencil separated from it about 3/8 in. The design at the upper right shows the proper spacing, about 1/8 in., which gives a desirable degree of diffusion.
Where comparatively small stencils are used, some means should be provided to keep the parts of the work outside the area of the stencil from receiving any of the mist which always envelops the spray. This may be effected by cutting a hole, slightly smaller than the stencil, in a sheet of wrapping or newspaper and placing this over the object before the stencil is attached. The stencil is then fastened over the hole and the sheet forms a mask that protects the finished parts of the work. (See Fig. 4.)
In addition to the stencils already mentioned, ferns and other leaves can often be used with good results for certain typesof work. They are either held flat against the surface to be stenciled or merely laid on it. In the latter case certain parts will be close to and other parts slightly away from the surface, and this will produce a combination of sharp and blended designs whose irregularity will be unusual but pleasing. Stenciled designs of this type as well as some of the other larger designs, may be improved by spraying a touch of appropriate color in the centers of the bold parts of the design, slightly relieving the expanse of the single color. Some designs can be more conveniently reproduced by using a stencil made of several small parts, which are applied to the surface to serve as masks, as for example, where a stripe or line border is desired. In these cases, the surface is first sprayed with the color desired for the border. The entire surface need not be covered and the spray may well be limited to an area slightly greater than that which is to form the border. Over this area is then pasted a narrow strip of paper of exactly the same width as the stripe or border to be produced and the remainder of the surface is sprayed with the desired color of lacquer. When the second coat has fully dried, the paper strip is removed from the surface, revealing the even stripe, of the same color as the underlying first coating of lacquer. This process avoids cutting a long slit in a stencil, which could bot be as readily secured to the surface, and, when used for designs other than stripes, eliminates much of the work.
Silhouettes may also be used as masks by lightly attaching them to the surface to be decorated and spraying the color on them and around the design. If desired, the color may be shaded off around the silhouette by directing the spray principally at the mask and allowing only the edge of the spray to fall on the background surrounding the mask. Either silhouette or reversed effects may be obtained in this manner, depending on whether the surface is dark or light relative to the color of the lacquer. Such designs may be effectively used for decorating lamp shades, spraying the lacquer on a sheet of parchment either before or after it has been made into a shade. A cut-out silhouette design on this type, with the lacquer sprayed aroud the design, is shown in Fig. 5. Only one coating of lacquer should be used in this case, in order to leave the light portions of the parchment transparent.
A type of work which lends itself very readily to some objects is done by using a piece of lace as a stencil. The lace preferably should be rather coarse and need not be new. First, it should be given a thorough coating of lacquer to render it stiffer and less absorbent, and, when dry, it may be tightly held to the work by pinning or sewing. When the lace stencil is applied, the color is sprayed to strike the surface perpendicularly and thus avoid creeping under the threads of the lace.
A relief effect can be produced by stencils used for other designs with a slight change in manipulation. After the design has been finished by spraying, the stencil is removed and replaced in a position slightly shifted, in a single direction only. With the stencil thus displaced, a very light spray, or, better, a spray slightly different in color, is directed on the parts not previously colored by the first stenciling operation. Too much lacquer should not be sprayed in this second step, if the color is used, and the best effects are produced by spraying only a light cloud of color in these unstenciled parts. If too much lacquer is sprayed, the effect will be totally lost and the design will appear as though the stencil had been incorrectly cut. This is avoided by using lacquer of a different color. Properly done, the stenciled design will appear as if in relief, casting a shadow to one side, as may be seen in Fig. 6.
Stenciling in more than a single color presents a few complications in the cutting of the stencils, but with simple designs the cutting does not involve extraordinarily difficult work. One of the easiest ways is to cut the stencil as if the design were to be done in one color, that is, so all the parts of the design will appear on a single stencil, and then cover certain parts with small pieces of paper. Attach this stencil to the object, stencil the first color, remove the paper and cover the remaining openinigs with paper so that the uncolored parts alone will receive the color on the second spraying. An example is shown in Fig. 7. In this, the leaf and stem portions, which are to be stenciled in green, are covered with a paper mask, while the red is applied through the fruit parts. When dry, the stem and leaf portions are uncovered and sprayed with green. In doing multicolor work, it will be found convenient to leave the stencil on the work while the paper masks are changed, as in this manner the question of register will be avoided. If it is necessary to remove the stencil from the surface of the object, or if more than a single stencil is being used, some marks should be made on the surface to insure that the following stencils will be properly placed with respect to the parts which have already been sprayed. One way of doing this is to mark lightly on the object the outline of the opposite corners of the first stencil.
Instead of pasting small pieces of paper over the opening in the stencil, it may be better for the particular design to use masking sheets over the stencil, each masking sheet being so made as to block out the proper portions of the stencil. To make these masks, lay the stencil successively on top of several sheets of rather heavy paper, cut to the same size as the stencil, and trace the design on each of these sheets by passing a pencil around the edges of all the openings in the stencil. The parts of the design to be in a particular color, say, red, are then removed from a single sheet; the parts for another color are removed from a second sheet, and so on. This need not be done as accurately as teh stencil cutting, the only requirement being that the removed parts should be at least as large as the stencil openings, but not so large as to cover a portion of the stencil intended to pass another color. In use, the stencil is first attached to the object and one of the masking sheets is laid over and in register with the stencil, blocking for all but the color to be sprayed. After spraying the first color, the surface should appear as in the upper-left part of Fig.7. Then the second mask may be put in place and sprayed with the proper color, the process being repeated until the entire design has been stenciled in the several colors. If the colors of a multicolored design are to be placed close together, it may require a separate stencil for each. These should be made on sheets of the same size, to insure that they will properly register, and the portions for each color may be cut after tracing the design on each of the sheets in exactly the same position.
All of the stenciling processes may be used equally well on furniture and other woodwork or even on draperies and walls. The latter have generally been decorated by stenciling with brushed paint, but by spraying paint or lacquer in the manner described, many unusual effects are obtained that can be produced as well by no other method.
After using the spray gun, or when a different-colored lacquer is to be applied, it should be thoroughly cleaned by draining the reservoir, pumping until all the lacquer has been removed that can be sprayed out and then washing the can with a small quantity of lacquer thinner, some of which should be sprayed to clean the nozzle. If the sprayer is to be left unused for only a short time, the cleaning may be avoided by dropping into the pipe leading to the reservoir a small-headed nail, to keep the lacquer from drying and clogging the nozzle. In using the sprayer with lacquers, there is only one precaution which need be observed: work in a well-ventiled place away from open flames. The solvents employed for the lacquers are inflammable and have an objectionable odor which will sometimes, and with some people, cause slight headache. Otherwise, there are no dangerous or disagreeable effects.
By Hobart N. Durham
Stenciling, while mechanical and so simple in its essentials that anyone can master it, nevertheless presents an opportunity for the exercise of one's artistic taste to beautify many of the plainer types of objects found in the home. Above all, the process is flexible, readily adapting itself to the decoration of any material in as simple or as ornate a manner as desired. With a view to showing the basic process and some of its more practical applications, this article describes well-tried methods, which can be readily carried out in the home at a very small outlay, leaving to the reader the choice of combining the essentials and adapting them to his own taste or using them as set forth.
For stenciling of the type to be described, one need purchase only a small quantity of spraying and brushing lacquers of various colors; stencils, which may be bought or easily made, and a stprayer of a type similar to those commonly employed with insecticides. In the commercial adaptation of these processes, air brushes are used, but their price, as a rule, is too hight for the amateur who has only a limited amound of the work to do. The sprayer should have a comparatively small reservoir and a well-made pump, as shown in Fig. 4. This size will make a better spray and waste less of the lacquer in cleaning. Such a sprayer can usually be bought for about 25 cents. As to the lacquers, any of the quick-drying nitrocellulose lacquers will be suitable and small cans of several colors should be on hand. For priming the surface of the material, if of wood, a can of priming lacquer will be found very useful. It is applied before the sprayed coatings.
The stencils can be bought quite cheaply and decorators' stencils will answer very well. If you wish to use your own designs, the stencils may easily be cut at home from either oiled paper or thin celluloid. The designs most suitable for stenciling are massive and should present but little detail, as this complicates the cutting and generally lessens the effect of the completed work. The various illustrations in this article show simple designs which can be artistically arranged, and represent a type best suited to reproduction by the stenciling process.
To cut the stencils from paper or celluloid, one may use either a sharp knife or a safety-razor blade to sever from the sheet those parts which are to be removed. The designs should first be drawn on the sheet. If you are a poor free-hand artist, use celluloid, place the sheet over a design and trace it. In cutting, care should be taken to avoid joining the two ends of a curved line, for if this happens, that portion included within the line will be left without support and will drop out. To avoid this, small "ties" should be left, as shown in Fig. 1, running from the outside of the design, to support the central portion of the stencil. It will also be well to leave these ties in case the design has unstenciled parts jutting into the areas to be stenciled.
Old photographic film, particularly the larger sizes, will be found a good substitute for new celluloid, the emulsion being first removed by soaking the film in hot water. After this cleaning, there still remains a thin coating of gelatin, which will readily take ink, so that the design can easily be drawn on it. One advantage of thin celluloid over paper, is that it need not be cut completely through. It is sufficient to scratch the surface deeply and then bend the celluloid sharply at the scratched line, when it will crack along the line just as if the cut had been made completely through the sheet.
If the ties are accidentally omitted or cut by mistake, a small narrow piece of celluloid or paper, cemented across the gaps, will serve equally well. The cementing can be done with some of the clear lacquer.
For complicated work, which would necessitate an extraordinary number of ties, it is better to use a different type of stencil, which may be made in the following manner: A piece of rather coarse organdie, or other open-mesh fabric, is stretched taut in an embroidery frame of a size considerably larger than the design to be stenciled, and the parts which correspon to the unpainted parts of the design are stopped out with a rather thick solution of glue or gelatin. This may be done with a brush, being careful to apply it only to those parts which are not to allow the color to pass. The glue should be sufficiently thick to fill the meshes, as any pinholes left in the coating will cause undesirable spots of color in the finished work. By holding the stencils to the light after they have been coated and dried, these pinholes may be detected. If any are found, they can be filled in with drops of glue. When the glue has dried, the stencils are ready for use in the same manner as the paper or celluloid stencils, except that, after use, they must be cleaned of the lacquer, which otherwise would remain in the unglued part of the fabric and make the stencil unfit for duplications of the same design.
Having the stencils, the object to be decorated should be given a coat of primer, or undercoat, followed with a coat of lacquer of the color desired for the article as a whole. Thus, if it is desired to produce a gray table with designs of blue, the table should first be given a coating of primer, then a coating of gray lacquer, after which the stencil should be placed on the surface and the blue lacquer applied through the openings in it.
The attaching of the stencil to the surface may be done by means of pins, weights around the edge (if the stencil is to be used in a horizontal position) or in some other way. One very convenient method of fastening stencils is to punch small holes, about &14frac; in. in diameter, around the edges, as well as in the large interior parts, and stick small squares of adhesive tape over those holes on the upper side of the stencil. After a stencil has been applied tot he object in the proper position, it may be fastened firmly by pressing the tape through the holes into contact with the surface of the object. This in no way interferes with the work, and the stencil can be removed readily without marring the finished surface. Enough of these holes and adhesive patches should be provided to insure that all parts of the stencil will lie flat against the work. Should it happen, on removing the stencil, that any of the adhesive remains, it can be wiped off with a cloth moistened with a small amount of lacquer thinner, or carbona.
Of course, the design should be appropriate to the object to be decorated, and equally important, its position should be carefully determined so it will be symmetrical and occupy the proper space, as in Fig. 2. Worngly placed, a deisgn will mar the general appearance as much as it will enchange it if properly placed.
With the stencil firmly secured to the work, the sprayer should be filled with lacquer and pumped a few times to insure a ready, even flow from the nozzle. It is better to have the work in a vertical or tilted position, as in this way the sprayer can be pointed directly at the open parts of the stencil without spoiling the result by any lacquer which might collect on and drip from the nozzle. If the sprayer is held so as to direct the spray perpendicularly to the surface, as shown in Fig. 4, and then moved about while spraying, an even coating will be easily obtained, while, if held at an angle, the spray will diminish in intensity as the distance from the nozzle becomes greater, resulting in an uneven coating. Advantage can easily be taken of this usually undesirable feature, and by intentionally spraying at an angle, the color may be shaded from full strength to a faint suggestion, producing highly decorative effects.
Beautiful blended color effects may be obtained by directing the spray at an angle to produce the greatest intensity at one side of the design and then repeating the process with a different, but harmonious, color from the opposite side. Both colors should be sprayed before the stencil is removed and, if carefully done, the colors will merge into each other in the central portions of the design, enhancing the appearance greatly.
After the spraying has been completed, the stencil is removed. Unless the lacquer has dried thoroughly, this should be done without sliding the stencil over the surface, to avoid smudging the surface and spoling the work. In any case, the best practice is to dorm the habit of lifting the stencil at one corner and pulling it up and away from the surface of the object.
If the stencil has not been held tightly against the surface, it will probably be noticed that the design will have a fuzzy or blurred edge extending slightly beyond the parts which were intended to be colored during the stenciling. The farther the stencil is spaced from the surface, the greater will be this softened edge and the more indistinct the design. If the stencil is spaced only a slight distance from the work, however, this may be put to good advantage in producing soft, pleasing designs of indistinct outline. The effects of various spacings are shown in Fig. 3. The most distinct of these designs was produced by having the stencil in close contact with the surface to be decorated, while the most diffuse was made with the stencil separated from it about 3/8 in. The design at the upper right shows the proper spacing, about 1/8 in., which gives a desirable degree of diffusion.
Where comparatively small stencils are used, some means should be provided to keep the parts of the work outside the area of the stencil from receiving any of the mist which always envelops the spray. This may be effected by cutting a hole, slightly smaller than the stencil, in a sheet of wrapping or newspaper and placing this over the object before the stencil is attached. The stencil is then fastened over the hole and the sheet forms a mask that protects the finished parts of the work. (See Fig. 4.)
In addition to the stencils already mentioned, ferns and other leaves can often be used with good results for certain typesof work. They are either held flat against the surface to be stenciled or merely laid on it. In the latter case certain parts will be close to and other parts slightly away from the surface, and this will produce a combination of sharp and blended designs whose irregularity will be unusual but pleasing. Stenciled designs of this type as well as some of the other larger designs, may be improved by spraying a touch of appropriate color in the centers of the bold parts of the design, slightly relieving the expanse of the single color. Some designs can be more conveniently reproduced by using a stencil made of several small parts, which are applied to the surface to serve as masks, as for example, where a stripe or line border is desired. In these cases, the surface is first sprayed with the color desired for the border. The entire surface need not be covered and the spray may well be limited to an area slightly greater than that which is to form the border. Over this area is then pasted a narrow strip of paper of exactly the same width as the stripe or border to be produced and the remainder of the surface is sprayed with the desired color of lacquer. When the second coat has fully dried, the paper strip is removed from the surface, revealing the even stripe, of the same color as the underlying first coating of lacquer. This process avoids cutting a long slit in a stencil, which could bot be as readily secured to the surface, and, when used for designs other than stripes, eliminates much of the work.
Silhouettes may also be used as masks by lightly attaching them to the surface to be decorated and spraying the color on them and around the design. If desired, the color may be shaded off around the silhouette by directing the spray principally at the mask and allowing only the edge of the spray to fall on the background surrounding the mask. Either silhouette or reversed effects may be obtained in this manner, depending on whether the surface is dark or light relative to the color of the lacquer. Such designs may be effectively used for decorating lamp shades, spraying the lacquer on a sheet of parchment either before or after it has been made into a shade. A cut-out silhouette design on this type, with the lacquer sprayed aroud the design, is shown in Fig. 5. Only one coating of lacquer should be used in this case, in order to leave the light portions of the parchment transparent.
A type of work which lends itself very readily to some objects is done by using a piece of lace as a stencil. The lace preferably should be rather coarse and need not be new. First, it should be given a thorough coating of lacquer to render it stiffer and less absorbent, and, when dry, it may be tightly held to the work by pinning or sewing. When the lace stencil is applied, the color is sprayed to strike the surface perpendicularly and thus avoid creeping under the threads of the lace.
A relief effect can be produced by stencils used for other designs with a slight change in manipulation. After the design has been finished by spraying, the stencil is removed and replaced in a position slightly shifted, in a single direction only. With the stencil thus displaced, a very light spray, or, better, a spray slightly different in color, is directed on the parts not previously colored by the first stenciling operation. Too much lacquer should not be sprayed in this second step, if the color is used, and the best effects are produced by spraying only a light cloud of color in these unstenciled parts. If too much lacquer is sprayed, the effect will be totally lost and the design will appear as though the stencil had been incorrectly cut. This is avoided by using lacquer of a different color. Properly done, the stenciled design will appear as if in relief, casting a shadow to one side, as may be seen in Fig. 6.
Stenciling in more than a single color presents a few complications in the cutting of the stencils, but with simple designs the cutting does not involve extraordinarily difficult work. One of the easiest ways is to cut the stencil as if the design were to be done in one color, that is, so all the parts of the design will appear on a single stencil, and then cover certain parts with small pieces of paper. Attach this stencil to the object, stencil the first color, remove the paper and cover the remaining openinigs with paper so that the uncolored parts alone will receive the color on the second spraying. An example is shown in Fig. 7. In this, the leaf and stem portions, which are to be stenciled in green, are covered with a paper mask, while the red is applied through the fruit parts. When dry, the stem and leaf portions are uncovered and sprayed with green. In doing multicolor work, it will be found convenient to leave the stencil on the work while the paper masks are changed, as in this manner the question of register will be avoided. If it is necessary to remove the stencil from the surface of the object, or if more than a single stencil is being used, some marks should be made on the surface to insure that the following stencils will be properly placed with respect to the parts which have already been sprayed. One way of doing this is to mark lightly on the object the outline of the opposite corners of the first stencil.
Instead of pasting small pieces of paper over the opening in the stencil, it may be better for the particular design to use masking sheets over the stencil, each masking sheet being so made as to block out the proper portions of the stencil. To make these masks, lay the stencil successively on top of several sheets of rather heavy paper, cut to the same size as the stencil, and trace the design on each of these sheets by passing a pencil around the edges of all the openings in the stencil. The parts of the design to be in a particular color, say, red, are then removed from a single sheet; the parts for another color are removed from a second sheet, and so on. This need not be done as accurately as teh stencil cutting, the only requirement being that the removed parts should be at least as large as the stencil openings, but not so large as to cover a portion of the stencil intended to pass another color. In use, the stencil is first attached to the object and one of the masking sheets is laid over and in register with the stencil, blocking for all but the color to be sprayed. After spraying the first color, the surface should appear as in the upper-left part of Fig.7. Then the second mask may be put in place and sprayed with the proper color, the process being repeated until the entire design has been stenciled in the several colors. If the colors of a multicolored design are to be placed close together, it may require a separate stencil for each. These should be made on sheets of the same size, to insure that they will properly register, and the portions for each color may be cut after tracing the design on each of the sheets in exactly the same position.
All of the stenciling processes may be used equally well on furniture and other woodwork or even on draperies and walls. The latter have generally been decorated by stenciling with brushed paint, but by spraying paint or lacquer in the manner described, many unusual effects are obtained that can be produced as well by no other method.
After using the spray gun, or when a different-colored lacquer is to be applied, it should be thoroughly cleaned by draining the reservoir, pumping until all the lacquer has been removed that can be sprayed out and then washing the can with a small quantity of lacquer thinner, some of which should be sprayed to clean the nozzle. If the sprayer is to be left unused for only a short time, the cleaning may be avoided by dropping into the pipe leading to the reservoir a small-headed nail, to keep the lacquer from drying and clogging the nozzle. In using the sprayer with lacquers, there is only one precaution which need be observed: work in a well-ventiled place away from open flames. The solvents employed for the lacquers are inflammable and have an objectionable odor which will sometimes, and with some people, cause slight headache. Otherwise, there are no dangerous or disagreeable effects.
6.1.10
Ei kelvannut luonnonwäri.
Säkkijärven Sanomat 33, 17.12.1898
Alaoutilassa on eräs tyttöhenkilö, joka kuuluu poskilleen laittelewan ruusun wäriä keinotekoisella tawalla. Paremman wärin puutteessa täytyy liotella punaisia papereita. Kirjoittaja oudoksuu tätä tapaa, koska se ei ole meikäläisissä oloissa tawallista.
Alaoutilassa on eräs tyttöhenkilö, joka kuuluu poskilleen laittelewan ruusun wäriä keinotekoisella tawalla. Paremman wärin puutteessa täytyy liotella punaisia papereita. Kirjoittaja oudoksuu tätä tapaa, koska se ei ole meikäläisissä oloissa tawallista.
Tinting Movie Film at the Kitchen Sink
Popular Science, huhtikuu 1942
By Charles G. Clarke, A. S. C.
You need no darkroom to tone or dye movie film, but can work in the kitchen. About 7' of film can be handled with ease on the reel shown
Amateur movei makers may obtain beautiful color effects at small cost by toning and dyeing black-and-white film. Flaming sunsets, blue skies, waterfalls, green pastorals, and even portraits and interiors can be made to sparkle with a touch of color. No darkroom is necessary.
Through washing after treatment is important. Turn the reel in a tray of water or under a faucet stream
Below, a tank reel hold 50' of film. An embossed apron wound on with the film keeps adjacent turns separated
Toning chemicals color the image only, while dyes impregnate the whole emulsion. Both are available in a range of colors. To apply any of them is a simple as immersing film in a sulphide solution to get sepia tones. Similarly, other chemicals turn high lights or shadows blue, green, copper or red. Most photographic manuals supply formulas, but commercial concentrated colors in either powder or liquid form require only the addition of water.
An open glass drum or a tank may be used, depending upon the length of the film. If the film has been projected, wash it in a weak solution of acetic acid, and dry it. Then wind it, emulsion side out, in a spiral around th e drum to prevent overlapping. Pour just enough color solution into a glass tray to cover the lower surface, and revolve the drum slowly until the desired color density appears (six or seven minutes should do); then place the drum over a second tray containing water, or under a slow-running faucet, and wash the film thoroughly.
If the film is to be both toned and dyed, tone it first, wash it well, and draw it between layers of well-soaked chamois from which the moisture has just been wrung. Then revolve the drum through the dye solution.
For final drying, short and medium lengths of film may be suspended by both ends. For greater lengths, a drying drum will be needed. One may be made from two bicycle wheels with strips of varnished wood molding attached at 1½" intervals around the rims. The drum should be supported at each end by one prong of an old bicycle fork, and turned by a ¼-h.p. motor. Clip the ends of the film to elastic bands, which will take up the slack, yet give enough to permit use of the drying chamois while the drum revolves.
By Charles G. Clarke, A. S. C.
You need no darkroom to tone or dye movie film, but can work in the kitchen. About 7' of film can be handled with ease on the reel shown
Amateur movei makers may obtain beautiful color effects at small cost by toning and dyeing black-and-white film. Flaming sunsets, blue skies, waterfalls, green pastorals, and even portraits and interiors can be made to sparkle with a touch of color. No darkroom is necessary.
Through washing after treatment is important. Turn the reel in a tray of water or under a faucet stream
Below, a tank reel hold 50' of film. An embossed apron wound on with the film keeps adjacent turns separated
Toning chemicals color the image only, while dyes impregnate the whole emulsion. Both are available in a range of colors. To apply any of them is a simple as immersing film in a sulphide solution to get sepia tones. Similarly, other chemicals turn high lights or shadows blue, green, copper or red. Most photographic manuals supply formulas, but commercial concentrated colors in either powder or liquid form require only the addition of water.
An open glass drum or a tank may be used, depending upon the length of the film. If the film has been projected, wash it in a weak solution of acetic acid, and dry it. Then wind it, emulsion side out, in a spiral around th e drum to prevent overlapping. Pour just enough color solution into a glass tray to cover the lower surface, and revolve the drum slowly until the desired color density appears (six or seven minutes should do); then place the drum over a second tray containing water, or under a slow-running faucet, and wash the film thoroughly.
If the film is to be both toned and dyed, tone it first, wash it well, and draw it between layers of well-soaked chamois from which the moisture has just been wrung. Then revolve the drum through the dye solution.
For final drying, short and medium lengths of film may be suspended by both ends. For greater lengths, a drying drum will be needed. One may be made from two bicycle wheels with strips of varnished wood molding attached at 1½" intervals around the rims. The drum should be supported at each end by one prong of an old bicycle fork, and turned by a ¼-h.p. motor. Clip the ends of the film to elastic bands, which will take up the slack, yet give enough to permit use of the drying chamois while the drum revolves.
(Ilmoitus pakkohuutokaupasta)
Savonlinna 21, 24.5.1879
Koska tänään Maistraatin edessä tapahtuneessa pakkohuutokaupassa, jossa ostettawaksi tarjottiin wärjärimestari Johan Allenin ja waimonsa Mathilda Allenin omattawa läntinen puoli taloa ja talonasemaa N:o 18 tämän kaupungin wanhemman osaston kolmannessa korttelissa Kaupunginlääkärin Frithios Gahmbergin weljenlasten ja holhottawien taloon ja talon asemaan kiinnitetystä saamisesta, tekewä kaksituhatta kaksisataa markkaa kuuden koron kanssa, luettu wiime wuoden Marraskuun 28 päiwästä, ei tehty kelwollista tarjomusta, niin myydään sama talo ja talonasema uudestaan julkisen nosto- ja lasku-pakkohuutokaupan kautta Maistraatin istunnossa täällä Maanantaina ensituleman Kesäkuun 16 päiwänä kello 11 e. p. p. sanotun welan suorittamiseksi; jota kuulutetaan. Sawonlinnan Raatihuoneella, Toukokuun 14 päiwänä 1879.
Maistraatin puolesta :
Hugo Ferd. Forss.
Koska tänään Maistraatin edessä tapahtuneessa pakkohuutokaupassa, jossa ostettawaksi tarjottiin wärjärimestari Johan Allenin ja waimonsa Mathilda Allenin omattawa läntinen puoli taloa ja talonasemaa N:o 18 tämän kaupungin wanhemman osaston kolmannessa korttelissa Kaupunginlääkärin Frithios Gahmbergin weljenlasten ja holhottawien taloon ja talon asemaan kiinnitetystä saamisesta, tekewä kaksituhatta kaksisataa markkaa kuuden koron kanssa, luettu wiime wuoden Marraskuun 28 päiwästä, ei tehty kelwollista tarjomusta, niin myydään sama talo ja talonasema uudestaan julkisen nosto- ja lasku-pakkohuutokaupan kautta Maistraatin istunnossa täällä Maanantaina ensituleman Kesäkuun 16 päiwänä kello 11 e. p. p. sanotun welan suorittamiseksi; jota kuulutetaan. Sawonlinnan Raatihuoneella, Toukokuun 14 päiwänä 1879.
Maistraatin puolesta :
Hugo Ferd. Forss.
Waterproof
Popular Science, huhtikuu 1942
By Maurice Wharton
Paints that are prepared for use simply by adding water, that anybody can apply over almost any type of surface, that dry in less than an hour, and withal are permanent and washable, sound like a home planner's dream. Nevertheless, they are very much a fact, widely used y interior decorators and deservedly popular.
These paints are available in white and pleasing pastel shades such as ivory, gray, tan, blue, orchid, and coral. Brillian "fresco" colors can be had for mixing in-between shades, painting on stencil designs, and creating special effects. Beautiful modern treatments such as broad gradated bands of a single color shaded from the pastel tint to its deepest tone, known technically as "let-downs," are possible by progressive mixing. One such effect is illustrated above.
A possibility not to be overlooked is the creation of stunning backgrounds for color photography. The amateur photographer, by using inexpensive wall-board panels and water paints, can make a variety of color screens and background sets.
These comparatively new water paints come in both powder and paste form. In general, they all possess the same properties of quick drying, clear colors, very flat finish, ease of application, and freedom from strong afterodor. Interiot water paints can be applied directly to plaster - even when it is still slightly damp - as well as over brick, wallboard, wood, metal, wall paper, and oil paint. Exterior finishes of this type may be used on brick, concrete, stucco, except magnesite), and other painted or unpainted surfaces. Because priming coats are rarely neede, and because water paints are applied with wide brushes, they afford a very economical means of finishing. However, they do not bond perfectly to glazed surfaces such as some types of tile and brick, nor should they be used for finishing rooms subject to steaming, such as bathrooms, kitchens, and laundries. Oil paints or enamels are preferable for such purposes, and worth the difference in cost.
The casein powder type of water paint is usually a mixture of dry casein, hydrated lime, and pigment. It should be allowed to stand for 20 or 30 minutes after mixing before it is applied. This type of paint is especially suitable for covering damp surfaces containing strong alkali, such as green concrete or fresh plaster.
More recently, water paints have been developed in paste form. these include casein, soybean protein, and resin paste paints. The casein paste paint contains pigments of great hiding power, such as lithopone and titanium dioxide. It is easily brushed on, dries quickly, and provides a very attractive flat pastel finish, which may be cleaned with a sponge and a mild soap solution.
Soybean paste paint, in which soybean protein serves the same purpose as casein, has an even cleaner odor. It is also easier to preserve and is claimed by some experts to stand up slightly better on damp walls. Some water paints combine casein and soybean protein, and the advantages of both.
Resin paste water paint, which is another variety, is prepared for use by adding half of gallon of water to a gallon of the paste. It consists of what are called "alkyd resins," emulsified into water, usually with a small amount of protein to stabilize the emulsion, and suitable pigment. The advantage of resin paints over casein and protein paints is that, when they dry, the resin is highly water resistant. Such paints willwithstand a surprising amount of washing and scrubbing, being comparable in this respect to flat oil paints. They are especially suitable for covering alkaline surfaces, such as green concrete or fresh plaster.
For outdoor use two coats give a sufficiently thick film to withstand weathering. A good outdoor resin paint, properly applied, will last several years and present an attractive finish during this time. These paints are "self-cleaning," in that they chalk off at a very slow rate, and rain washes off surface dirt along with the fine dust.
To mix resin paste paint, use only clean galvanized iron buckets. Add water only as fast as the paint can take it up, stirring thoroughly. In cold weather, mix outdoor water paints with warm water. If freezing temperatures prevail, use a half-and-half water and alcohol mixture.
Calcimine and whitewash must be thoroughly removed before modern water paints are applied. Glossy or greasy surfaces on which the paint "crawls" should be scoured with washing powder before painting. Where plaster flakes, chalks, or shells easily, brush off all loose material and apply a flat, pigmented, oil-type wall size. Casein size is also satisfactory, but blue, water sizes, sealing varnish, and shellac are not suitable for use under water paints. Surfaces that have been treated with alum or zinc sulphate, or with sizes containing these substances, must be washed with a strong washing-powder solution. Where effervescent mildew, acid, or excessive dirt and grease conditions exist, a trisodium-phosphate wash is advisable, followed by a water rinse. It is not necessary to wait for the surface to dry before staring to paint. In preparing old surfaces, fill all holes or cracks with patching plaster. Give patches a preliminary coat of the finishing paint.
Outside surfaces should be clean and free from dirt, dust, or grease. Remove old cold-water paints or whitewash. Clean off oil or grease with gasoline. Use a scraper or wire brush to remove any rust or loose, scaling materials. Hard rust spots and metals susceptible to rust should be primed with a rust-inhibitive paint. Point up holes and cracks with suitable patching material and coat these spots before painting all over.
No surface preparation is necessary when painting new concrete, stucco, limestone, and masonry surfaces. Do not neutralize lime before applying the paint. However, if an acid was has been applied, it will be necessary to neutralize this acid with an alkaline solution. Caution should be exercised when painting reclaimed brick, improperly kilned brick, or mortar joints made with unwashed sand. The paint will not form a proper bond with any powdering brick, cement, or limestone surface.
Deeply embedded, bleeding stains become visible after the first coat of paint and should be sealed before applying a second coat. Be sure that rood flashings, gutters, cornices, and the like are in good condition before starting the paint job.
A good, clean calcimine, Dutch calcimine, or large paintbriush with soft, flexible bristles is suitable for applying most water paints. Keep the brush well filled at all times.
If the paint becomes too thick during application, it may be thinned by the addition of small amount of water. One coat will be satisfactory in many instances, but on new surfaces and on surfaces where extra durability is desired, two coats are recommended.
Allow the first coat to dry at least dfour hours before applying the second one. In other cases, provided that there is sufficient ventilation to speed evaporation, pictures and furnishings may usually be replaced within an hour after painting.
Contrary to general belief, white and such light tints as buff and cream have the highest one-coat covering efficiency.
Immediately after use, all brushes should be cleaned in a soap solution. If brushes have been allowed to dry with the material on them, they can often be softened in benzine.
Do not attempt to wash water paints until they have been on the surface at least 30 days. After this you can brush or sponge the surface with a mild soap solution, washing the latter off with clean, lukewarm water immediately after it has been applied. Start washing at the floor and work up to the ceiling. Wall-paper cleaner gives excellent results and is especially recommended where the paint has been applied to a porous surface. Do not attempt to scrub casein and soybean protein paints.
By Maurice Wharton
Paints that are prepared for use simply by adding water, that anybody can apply over almost any type of surface, that dry in less than an hour, and withal are permanent and washable, sound like a home planner's dream. Nevertheless, they are very much a fact, widely used y interior decorators and deservedly popular.
These paints are available in white and pleasing pastel shades such as ivory, gray, tan, blue, orchid, and coral. Brillian "fresco" colors can be had for mixing in-between shades, painting on stencil designs, and creating special effects. Beautiful modern treatments such as broad gradated bands of a single color shaded from the pastel tint to its deepest tone, known technically as "let-downs," are possible by progressive mixing. One such effect is illustrated above.
A possibility not to be overlooked is the creation of stunning backgrounds for color photography. The amateur photographer, by using inexpensive wall-board panels and water paints, can make a variety of color screens and background sets.
These comparatively new water paints come in both powder and paste form. In general, they all possess the same properties of quick drying, clear colors, very flat finish, ease of application, and freedom from strong afterodor. Interiot water paints can be applied directly to plaster - even when it is still slightly damp - as well as over brick, wallboard, wood, metal, wall paper, and oil paint. Exterior finishes of this type may be used on brick, concrete, stucco, except magnesite), and other painted or unpainted surfaces. Because priming coats are rarely neede, and because water paints are applied with wide brushes, they afford a very economical means of finishing. However, they do not bond perfectly to glazed surfaces such as some types of tile and brick, nor should they be used for finishing rooms subject to steaming, such as bathrooms, kitchens, and laundries. Oil paints or enamels are preferable for such purposes, and worth the difference in cost.
The casein powder type of water paint is usually a mixture of dry casein, hydrated lime, and pigment. It should be allowed to stand for 20 or 30 minutes after mixing before it is applied. This type of paint is especially suitable for covering damp surfaces containing strong alkali, such as green concrete or fresh plaster.
More recently, water paints have been developed in paste form. these include casein, soybean protein, and resin paste paints. The casein paste paint contains pigments of great hiding power, such as lithopone and titanium dioxide. It is easily brushed on, dries quickly, and provides a very attractive flat pastel finish, which may be cleaned with a sponge and a mild soap solution.
Soybean paste paint, in which soybean protein serves the same purpose as casein, has an even cleaner odor. It is also easier to preserve and is claimed by some experts to stand up slightly better on damp walls. Some water paints combine casein and soybean protein, and the advantages of both.
Resin paste water paint, which is another variety, is prepared for use by adding half of gallon of water to a gallon of the paste. It consists of what are called "alkyd resins," emulsified into water, usually with a small amount of protein to stabilize the emulsion, and suitable pigment. The advantage of resin paints over casein and protein paints is that, when they dry, the resin is highly water resistant. Such paints willwithstand a surprising amount of washing and scrubbing, being comparable in this respect to flat oil paints. They are especially suitable for covering alkaline surfaces, such as green concrete or fresh plaster.
For outdoor use two coats give a sufficiently thick film to withstand weathering. A good outdoor resin paint, properly applied, will last several years and present an attractive finish during this time. These paints are "self-cleaning," in that they chalk off at a very slow rate, and rain washes off surface dirt along with the fine dust.
To mix resin paste paint, use only clean galvanized iron buckets. Add water only as fast as the paint can take it up, stirring thoroughly. In cold weather, mix outdoor water paints with warm water. If freezing temperatures prevail, use a half-and-half water and alcohol mixture.
Calcimine and whitewash must be thoroughly removed before modern water paints are applied. Glossy or greasy surfaces on which the paint "crawls" should be scoured with washing powder before painting. Where plaster flakes, chalks, or shells easily, brush off all loose material and apply a flat, pigmented, oil-type wall size. Casein size is also satisfactory, but blue, water sizes, sealing varnish, and shellac are not suitable for use under water paints. Surfaces that have been treated with alum or zinc sulphate, or with sizes containing these substances, must be washed with a strong washing-powder solution. Where effervescent mildew, acid, or excessive dirt and grease conditions exist, a trisodium-phosphate wash is advisable, followed by a water rinse. It is not necessary to wait for the surface to dry before staring to paint. In preparing old surfaces, fill all holes or cracks with patching plaster. Give patches a preliminary coat of the finishing paint.
Outside surfaces should be clean and free from dirt, dust, or grease. Remove old cold-water paints or whitewash. Clean off oil or grease with gasoline. Use a scraper or wire brush to remove any rust or loose, scaling materials. Hard rust spots and metals susceptible to rust should be primed with a rust-inhibitive paint. Point up holes and cracks with suitable patching material and coat these spots before painting all over.
No surface preparation is necessary when painting new concrete, stucco, limestone, and masonry surfaces. Do not neutralize lime before applying the paint. However, if an acid was has been applied, it will be necessary to neutralize this acid with an alkaline solution. Caution should be exercised when painting reclaimed brick, improperly kilned brick, or mortar joints made with unwashed sand. The paint will not form a proper bond with any powdering brick, cement, or limestone surface.
Deeply embedded, bleeding stains become visible after the first coat of paint and should be sealed before applying a second coat. Be sure that rood flashings, gutters, cornices, and the like are in good condition before starting the paint job.
A good, clean calcimine, Dutch calcimine, or large paintbriush with soft, flexible bristles is suitable for applying most water paints. Keep the brush well filled at all times.
If the paint becomes too thick during application, it may be thinned by the addition of small amount of water. One coat will be satisfactory in many instances, but on new surfaces and on surfaces where extra durability is desired, two coats are recommended.
Allow the first coat to dry at least dfour hours before applying the second one. In other cases, provided that there is sufficient ventilation to speed evaporation, pictures and furnishings may usually be replaced within an hour after painting.
Contrary to general belief, white and such light tints as buff and cream have the highest one-coat covering efficiency.
Immediately after use, all brushes should be cleaned in a soap solution. If brushes have been allowed to dry with the material on them, they can often be softened in benzine.
Do not attempt to wash water paints until they have been on the surface at least 30 days. After this you can brush or sponge the surface with a mild soap solution, washing the latter off with clean, lukewarm water immediately after it has been applied. Start washing at the floor and work up to the ceiling. Wall-paper cleaner gives excellent results and is especially recommended where the paint has been applied to a porous surface. Do not attempt to scrub casein and soybean protein paints.
4.1.10
Värjätty Luutnantti
Pohjalainen, 9.8.1899
Neues Wiener Journal kertoo seuraawan hauskan jutun:
Eräs nuori wenäläinen luutnantti joutui joku aika sitten sankariksi omituisessa seikkailussa. Nuori sotilas oli hakkaillut erään wärjärin tytärtä Moskowassa. Mutta isäukko, joka hywin käsitti
ettei siitä mitään totta tule, kielsi häneltä jyrkästi pääsyn kotiinsa. Kieltoa ei toteltu. Ja niin menetti ukko wiineini kärsiwällisyytensä ja päätti omalla tawallaan päästä eroon tungettelewasta sotilaasta.
Huolimatta nuoren sotilaan hurjasta wastustuksesta, koppasi wärjäri hänet eräänä päiwänä kiinni ja pisti wäriammeeseen. Pidettyään häntä siellä tarpeeksi kauan, että wäri ehtisi tarttua, antoi hän onnettoman liputtaa tiehensä.
Wimmoissaan riensi luutnantti kotiinsa ja koetti tuntikaudet pestä pois wäriä käsistään ja kaswoistaan. Mutta se oli turhaa waiwaa. Wäri oli tarttunut aina hiusten juuriin saakka.
Tässä kummallisessa asussa esiintyi nyt luutnantti Moskowan kenraalikuwernöörin luo, joka tietysti hämmästyneenä katseli häntä. Saatuaan tietää syyn muutokseen lähetti kenraalikuwernööri heti sanan wärjärille ja käski ankarasti tämän heti antamaan luutnantille luonnollisen wärinsä takaisin. Mutta wärjäri
selitti ylpeästi, että wäri missä luutnantti oli kastettu, oli "lähtemätöntä", minkätähden se ei niin hewillä lähdekään.
Luuntnantti on kipeä kiukustaan, kun hänen nyt täytyy olla wanhan wärjärin "osoitekilpenä". Wärjätty luutnantti on nyt kemialisen puhdistuksen alaisena. - Mutta kumminkin wiipynee useampia
wiikkoja ennenkuin hän saa entisen wärinsä.
Neues Wiener Journal kertoo seuraawan hauskan jutun:
Eräs nuori wenäläinen luutnantti joutui joku aika sitten sankariksi omituisessa seikkailussa. Nuori sotilas oli hakkaillut erään wärjärin tytärtä Moskowassa. Mutta isäukko, joka hywin käsitti
ettei siitä mitään totta tule, kielsi häneltä jyrkästi pääsyn kotiinsa. Kieltoa ei toteltu. Ja niin menetti ukko wiineini kärsiwällisyytensä ja päätti omalla tawallaan päästä eroon tungettelewasta sotilaasta.
Huolimatta nuoren sotilaan hurjasta wastustuksesta, koppasi wärjäri hänet eräänä päiwänä kiinni ja pisti wäriammeeseen. Pidettyään häntä siellä tarpeeksi kauan, että wäri ehtisi tarttua, antoi hän onnettoman liputtaa tiehensä.
Wimmoissaan riensi luutnantti kotiinsa ja koetti tuntikaudet pestä pois wäriä käsistään ja kaswoistaan. Mutta se oli turhaa waiwaa. Wäri oli tarttunut aina hiusten juuriin saakka.
Tässä kummallisessa asussa esiintyi nyt luutnantti Moskowan kenraalikuwernöörin luo, joka tietysti hämmästyneenä katseli häntä. Saatuaan tietää syyn muutokseen lähetti kenraalikuwernööri heti sanan wärjärille ja käski ankarasti tämän heti antamaan luutnantille luonnollisen wärinsä takaisin. Mutta wärjäri
selitti ylpeästi, että wäri missä luutnantti oli kastettu, oli "lähtemätöntä", minkätähden se ei niin hewillä lähdekään.
Luuntnantti on kipeä kiukustaan, kun hänen nyt täytyy olla wanhan wärjärin "osoitekilpenä". Wärjätty luutnantti on nyt kemialisen puhdistuksen alaisena. - Mutta kumminkin wiipynee useampia
wiikkoja ennenkuin hän saa entisen wärinsä.
Paint Is Life Insurance For Your Boat
Popular Science, heinäkuu 1944
Timely work with the brush will prove that real key to keeping any craft, small or large, always in good trim
By Elon Jessup
Men experienced in salt-water boat yards will tell you that if you put off the repainting of a bottom for as long as two years your boat is a goner. With new pleasure boats now practically off the market, this means that your old craft, if it is to last and give good service, is going to need a repaint and varnish job without delay.
But professional painters are hard to get nowadays, and the boat yards are all busy with Navy work. It looks as if you will have to do the job yourself.
Good paint, fortunately, is still procurable. Some are of the opinion that sooner or later it won't be. It contains ingredients - especially copper bottom paint - needed for the war. The wiser boat owners aren't taking a chance. They say, get the paint and put your boat in first-class condition while you can.
Your craft may be anything from a 7' dinghy to a 60' cruiser. The method of painting it won't vary basically. But in every case you must investigate and formulate a definite plan. Otherwise you may either skimp on essentials or let yourself in for a lot of hard work that isn't necessary. A boat-painting job can be made easy and still be thorough, or it can be difficult and complicated. Take it easy. And take your time. The job simply can't be rushed.
A good example of planning is in deciding the question of whether or not an old paint surface ought to be completely stripped off- down to the base wood. In some cases this will be essential, while in others it won't. Again, on a given craft, stripping may be required for the top topsides and not for the deck - or the opposite may be the case. You must investigate and judge for yourself. It would be foolish to distrub old paint that is solidly bonded to the wood and neither cracked nor blistered. A solid, firm base of this sort is an excellent one upon which to spread a new coat of paint.
Complete stripping down is required when the old paint has gone lifeless and no longer provides a firm base to which new paint can cling. But it is usually a matter of years before this stage is reached. To strip down a boat every year, as some boatmen do, is rarely necessary. You will recognize the real need by the cracking, blistering, and flaking of the old paint. And you can be sure things are in bad shape when the paint peels off in strips. The best way to find out how matters really stand is to go over the entire surface with sandpaper.
There is a convenient short cut for dealing with flaked and blistered paint. This is a method known an spot painting. After a thorough sanding of the surface to bring off all the old paint that can be loosened, leave the paint that remains firm undisturbed and then paint only the spots where bare wood shows. The boat will look like a leopard at first, but after the spots have dried, a finishing coat is spread over the whole surface, and then your craft ought to look as good as new.
A more thorough and lasting method of treating flaked and blistered paint is to strip down the entire old paint surface. A blowtorch is the favorite tool for the job, and it provides the easiest way. The torch is held in the left hand while, with a putty knife in the right, you peel off streaks of hot, softened paint.
Be sure never to use blowtorch on canvas - either canvas decks or sides. It is likely to scorch and ruin the cloth Paint remover should be your medium for stripping this material. The use of paint remover is also more suitable than a blowtorch for vanished surfaces. Black scorchings from the torch will always show unpleasantly through a new coat of varnish.
Another tool that does a good job of stripping both paint and varnish is a power sander. Its use, however, is sometimes more practicable for decks than sides, for a power sander is a heavy implement to hold against a sloping topside.
It is difficult to plan the real painting requirements of a boat without first giving the craft a sound scrubbing with soap and water, inside and out, from stem to stern. This may disclose certain structural weaknesses as well, such as loose fastenings or sports of dry rot in the wood. Now is the time to repair these places, before any new paint goes on. There is one exception to this. You will propably find seams and nail or screw holes that need to be puttied. Postpone this particular chore until after a priming coat has been applied over the wood. When this has been done, the putty will cling all the better.
Both the weather and the amount of protection your boat enjoys will have a bearing upon how you plan the actual painting. If the boat is berthed in the open and has a cabin, it may prove good planning in uncertain weather, such as that occuring in the early spring, to tackle the interior first. But generally speaking, it is a waste of time to paint or varnish during damp or cold weather. Even if you have your boat under a shed, wait for a spell of settled, fair weather. Then do the painting from about 10 o'clock in the morning until three in the afternoon to obtain the best results.
It will make your work easier in the end if you give the boat a second thorough scrubbing with soap and water a short time before laying on paint. After this, regardless of whether a complete stripping down has been done, it is essential to sandpaper all parts that are to be painted. If this sandpapering brings off any blister patches, spotpaint them and let the paint dry. The surface should always be thoroughly dry and free from dust before any paint is applied. If paint remover has been used, the wood should be washed down with turpentine to get rid of the wax in the remover.
Generally, the easiest system in painting is to start at the top and work down - as you'd do in painting a house. However, some boatmen find it more convenient to paint the topsides before the deck, that is, the sides between the water line and rail. The bottom comes last. Use only a reliable marine paint - not a house paint. No matter how good, house paint won't stand up in the water the way marine paint does.
Here is the easiest and best wat to paint the topsides. commence with the brush at the starboard bow and work aft, gradually going around the boat in a clockwise direction and ending up where you started under the bows. This is, of course, on the supposition that you are right-handed. In following this method, you profit by having a finishing stroke that is continually forward instead of backward. A person accustomed to holding the brush in his left hand will get the same results by starting at the port bow and working around the boat counterclockwise.
Two coats should be enough on an old, firm paint base. Thin down the paint with turpentine for the first coat, perhaps by about 10 percent. The second coat will usually be laid on as it comes from the can. Paints vary, however, and the best system is to follow closely the directions a manufacturer prints on the container.
After the first coat has been applied, putty seams, nicks, and hole where this is needed. Although in some instances recalking may be required, as a rule it is best to leave the old calking undisturbed. As for putty, ordinary window-pane putty won't do. The variety most used for general plugging is white-lead putty. For seams - including those on the deck - a putty of prepared elastic seam cement is preferred.
Painting of decks and the interior follows much the same procedure as that of the topsides. Here, too, be sure the first coat is thoroughly dry before laying on the second. If the weather isn't just right, the surface may remain sticky for days or even weeks. Don't rush it. Before applying the second coat, sandpaper the first lightly.
Between the topsides and bottom on some boats, but not all, is a wide, decorative stripe running from stem to sern. It is known as the boot-topping and serves as a sort of water-line barrier against grease and dirt in the water. Paint it with a very hard enamel that will take plenty of scrubbing.
Then, finally, you get to the bottom and something radically different in paints. There are many kinds of bottom paints. Your selection should be determined first of all by whether your boat is kept in fresh water or salt water. The safest rule to follow is to choose the brand commonly used by boatmen in your own locality.
The marine pests of salt water require special ingredients in a paint. Marine worms won't go through paint, but they will quickly penetrate any bare wood where paint has come off. Watch the boat's bottom. It is the part of a craft requiring the utmost attention and, unless properly protected, it is sure to give trouble. The bottom of every salt-water boat must be painted once a year at the very least, and usually it should be painted even more frequently.
Most pleasure craft that cruise salt water require a soft copper antifouling bottom paint. Before applying it, sandpaper the bottom to free it of all loose paint and dirt. Boat yards sometimes speed this job up by playing a hose on the bottom and scrubing with a harsh broom. The surface must be left to dry, after which the first coat is applied. Between coats, as in the case of topsides, putty up all holes.
Let the first coat dry thoroughly before applying the second. But this second coat is treated differently. Postpone putting it on until about an hour before the boat is scheduled to go overboard. The bottom ought to go into the water still a little wet. When it does, there will be a slow release of poison from the paint to discourage parasites from taking hold.
The fresh-water boat owner hasn't as much to worry about. A hard-surface paint and an occasional scrubbing ought to keep the bottom of his craft clean.
While any boat is afloat, give her a periodical washing with fresh water. This keeps salt and dirt from baking into the paint.
Timely work with the brush will prove that real key to keeping any craft, small or large, always in good trim
By Elon Jessup
Men experienced in salt-water boat yards will tell you that if you put off the repainting of a bottom for as long as two years your boat is a goner. With new pleasure boats now practically off the market, this means that your old craft, if it is to last and give good service, is going to need a repaint and varnish job without delay.
But professional painters are hard to get nowadays, and the boat yards are all busy with Navy work. It looks as if you will have to do the job yourself.
Good paint, fortunately, is still procurable. Some are of the opinion that sooner or later it won't be. It contains ingredients - especially copper bottom paint - needed for the war. The wiser boat owners aren't taking a chance. They say, get the paint and put your boat in first-class condition while you can.
Your craft may be anything from a 7' dinghy to a 60' cruiser. The method of painting it won't vary basically. But in every case you must investigate and formulate a definite plan. Otherwise you may either skimp on essentials or let yourself in for a lot of hard work that isn't necessary. A boat-painting job can be made easy and still be thorough, or it can be difficult and complicated. Take it easy. And take your time. The job simply can't be rushed.
A good example of planning is in deciding the question of whether or not an old paint surface ought to be completely stripped off- down to the base wood. In some cases this will be essential, while in others it won't. Again, on a given craft, stripping may be required for the top topsides and not for the deck - or the opposite may be the case. You must investigate and judge for yourself. It would be foolish to distrub old paint that is solidly bonded to the wood and neither cracked nor blistered. A solid, firm base of this sort is an excellent one upon which to spread a new coat of paint.
Complete stripping down is required when the old paint has gone lifeless and no longer provides a firm base to which new paint can cling. But it is usually a matter of years before this stage is reached. To strip down a boat every year, as some boatmen do, is rarely necessary. You will recognize the real need by the cracking, blistering, and flaking of the old paint. And you can be sure things are in bad shape when the paint peels off in strips. The best way to find out how matters really stand is to go over the entire surface with sandpaper.
There is a convenient short cut for dealing with flaked and blistered paint. This is a method known an spot painting. After a thorough sanding of the surface to bring off all the old paint that can be loosened, leave the paint that remains firm undisturbed and then paint only the spots where bare wood shows. The boat will look like a leopard at first, but after the spots have dried, a finishing coat is spread over the whole surface, and then your craft ought to look as good as new.
A more thorough and lasting method of treating flaked and blistered paint is to strip down the entire old paint surface. A blowtorch is the favorite tool for the job, and it provides the easiest way. The torch is held in the left hand while, with a putty knife in the right, you peel off streaks of hot, softened paint.
Be sure never to use blowtorch on canvas - either canvas decks or sides. It is likely to scorch and ruin the cloth Paint remover should be your medium for stripping this material. The use of paint remover is also more suitable than a blowtorch for vanished surfaces. Black scorchings from the torch will always show unpleasantly through a new coat of varnish.
Another tool that does a good job of stripping both paint and varnish is a power sander. Its use, however, is sometimes more practicable for decks than sides, for a power sander is a heavy implement to hold against a sloping topside.
It is difficult to plan the real painting requirements of a boat without first giving the craft a sound scrubbing with soap and water, inside and out, from stem to stern. This may disclose certain structural weaknesses as well, such as loose fastenings or sports of dry rot in the wood. Now is the time to repair these places, before any new paint goes on. There is one exception to this. You will propably find seams and nail or screw holes that need to be puttied. Postpone this particular chore until after a priming coat has been applied over the wood. When this has been done, the putty will cling all the better.
Both the weather and the amount of protection your boat enjoys will have a bearing upon how you plan the actual painting. If the boat is berthed in the open and has a cabin, it may prove good planning in uncertain weather, such as that occuring in the early spring, to tackle the interior first. But generally speaking, it is a waste of time to paint or varnish during damp or cold weather. Even if you have your boat under a shed, wait for a spell of settled, fair weather. Then do the painting from about 10 o'clock in the morning until three in the afternoon to obtain the best results.
It will make your work easier in the end if you give the boat a second thorough scrubbing with soap and water a short time before laying on paint. After this, regardless of whether a complete stripping down has been done, it is essential to sandpaper all parts that are to be painted. If this sandpapering brings off any blister patches, spotpaint them and let the paint dry. The surface should always be thoroughly dry and free from dust before any paint is applied. If paint remover has been used, the wood should be washed down with turpentine to get rid of the wax in the remover.
Generally, the easiest system in painting is to start at the top and work down - as you'd do in painting a house. However, some boatmen find it more convenient to paint the topsides before the deck, that is, the sides between the water line and rail. The bottom comes last. Use only a reliable marine paint - not a house paint. No matter how good, house paint won't stand up in the water the way marine paint does.
Here is the easiest and best wat to paint the topsides. commence with the brush at the starboard bow and work aft, gradually going around the boat in a clockwise direction and ending up where you started under the bows. This is, of course, on the supposition that you are right-handed. In following this method, you profit by having a finishing stroke that is continually forward instead of backward. A person accustomed to holding the brush in his left hand will get the same results by starting at the port bow and working around the boat counterclockwise.
Two coats should be enough on an old, firm paint base. Thin down the paint with turpentine for the first coat, perhaps by about 10 percent. The second coat will usually be laid on as it comes from the can. Paints vary, however, and the best system is to follow closely the directions a manufacturer prints on the container.
After the first coat has been applied, putty seams, nicks, and hole where this is needed. Although in some instances recalking may be required, as a rule it is best to leave the old calking undisturbed. As for putty, ordinary window-pane putty won't do. The variety most used for general plugging is white-lead putty. For seams - including those on the deck - a putty of prepared elastic seam cement is preferred.
Painting of decks and the interior follows much the same procedure as that of the topsides. Here, too, be sure the first coat is thoroughly dry before laying on the second. If the weather isn't just right, the surface may remain sticky for days or even weeks. Don't rush it. Before applying the second coat, sandpaper the first lightly.
Between the topsides and bottom on some boats, but not all, is a wide, decorative stripe running from stem to sern. It is known as the boot-topping and serves as a sort of water-line barrier against grease and dirt in the water. Paint it with a very hard enamel that will take plenty of scrubbing.
Then, finally, you get to the bottom and something radically different in paints. There are many kinds of bottom paints. Your selection should be determined first of all by whether your boat is kept in fresh water or salt water. The safest rule to follow is to choose the brand commonly used by boatmen in your own locality.
The marine pests of salt water require special ingredients in a paint. Marine worms won't go through paint, but they will quickly penetrate any bare wood where paint has come off. Watch the boat's bottom. It is the part of a craft requiring the utmost attention and, unless properly protected, it is sure to give trouble. The bottom of every salt-water boat must be painted once a year at the very least, and usually it should be painted even more frequently.
Most pleasure craft that cruise salt water require a soft copper antifouling bottom paint. Before applying it, sandpaper the bottom to free it of all loose paint and dirt. Boat yards sometimes speed this job up by playing a hose on the bottom and scrubing with a harsh broom. The surface must be left to dry, after which the first coat is applied. Between coats, as in the case of topsides, putty up all holes.
Let the first coat dry thoroughly before applying the second. But this second coat is treated differently. Postpone putting it on until about an hour before the boat is scheduled to go overboard. The bottom ought to go into the water still a little wet. When it does, there will be a slow release of poison from the paint to discourage parasites from taking hold.
The fresh-water boat owner hasn't as much to worry about. A hard-surface paint and an occasional scrubbing ought to keep the bottom of his craft clean.
While any boat is afloat, give her a periodical washing with fresh water. This keeps salt and dirt from baking into the paint.
Yleishyödyllistä. (Maalauksia ulkoilmassa)
Savonlinna 18, 4.5.1883
(Suomen Teollisuuslehdestä)
Maalauksia ulkoilmassa toimitetaan uusimpien kokeitten mukaan edullisimmin talwella. Talwella tehdyt maalaukset sanotaan olewan puolta kestäwämpiä kuin kesällä tehdyt, syystä että öljy kesällä äkkiä imeytyy puuhun - sitä äkkeiemmin tietysti kuta kuumempi ilma on — joten itse wäriaine ilman sidettä jää punainen pinnalle, josta se helposti kesii irti ja huuhtoutuu pois sateessa. Jos sitä wastoin öljywäri wedetään päälle kylmemmän ilman aikana, niin se kuiwaa hitaammin, öljy jää pinnalle ja pikiytyy wäriaineen kanssa kowaksi peitteeksi, jota erittäin hywin kestää sadetta ja auringon paahdetta. Toinenkin etu on ulkomaalauksesta talwisaikana, nimittäin se, ett'ei tuuli silloin woi ajaa pölyä tuoreesen maaliin. Itsestään selwää tietysti on, että wäri maalatessa on pidettäwä lämpöisenä ja että työ tehdään pyryttöminä ja sateettomina päiwinä eikä kowin kylmällä säällä - paraiten päiwinä, jolloin lämpömittari osoittaa 0 astetta.
(Suomen Teollisuuslehdestä)
Maalauksia ulkoilmassa toimitetaan uusimpien kokeitten mukaan edullisimmin talwella. Talwella tehdyt maalaukset sanotaan olewan puolta kestäwämpiä kuin kesällä tehdyt, syystä että öljy kesällä äkkiä imeytyy puuhun - sitä äkkeiemmin tietysti kuta kuumempi ilma on — joten itse wäriaine ilman sidettä jää punainen pinnalle, josta se helposti kesii irti ja huuhtoutuu pois sateessa. Jos sitä wastoin öljywäri wedetään päälle kylmemmän ilman aikana, niin se kuiwaa hitaammin, öljy jää pinnalle ja pikiytyy wäriaineen kanssa kowaksi peitteeksi, jota erittäin hywin kestää sadetta ja auringon paahdetta. Toinenkin etu on ulkomaalauksesta talwisaikana, nimittäin se, ett'ei tuuli silloin woi ajaa pölyä tuoreesen maaliin. Itsestään selwää tietysti on, että wäri maalatessa on pidettäwä lämpöisenä ja että työ tehdään pyryttöminä ja sateettomina päiwinä eikä kowin kylmällä säällä - paraiten päiwinä, jolloin lämpömittari osoittaa 0 astetta.
Photographs in Natural Colors
Popular Mechanics, huhtikuu 1915
New Process Makes Reproduction of Unlimited Number of Prints Practicable for the First Time
The reproduction on paper of an unlimited number of photographic prints in the true colors of the original subject, which has been the dream of every inventor in the photographic field, is now possible by a process which is stated to be so simple that any intelligent amateur can master it. Frederick Eugene Ives, the American invertor of the half-tine process of printing and the three-color half-tone process, as well as of many devices in the field of applied optics, has taken out patents on this new photographic method.
Color photography on transparent slides has been in use for several years, but only one transparency could be made from a single negative. No reproduction in colors on paper has heretofore been possible by any simple and dependable rocess. The new "Tripack" process has been reduced to so uniform a basis that color prints can be accurately duplicated. Tests already made indicate that the prints will retain the brilliance of their original colors in spite of constant exposure to light.
The new process is based on the same principle as the three-color halftone. Three negatives are made simultaneously, by a single exposure, and from these, positives of different colors are printed. Two of the positives are on celluloid; the third, or bottom layer, is on paper. Each of the three negative plates separates out from the various colors of the object photographed one of the three colors of red, green, and blue. The negatives themselves are colorless, but one records in black and white the red rays of light reflected from the object photographed, one the blue rays, and the other the green rays. In the finished prints, one of the celluloid films is dyed red, and the other yellow, both being superposed upon a paper print of peacock blue. The print from the negative that recorded the green rays is on the red film, and the resultant image of the green portions of the subject is transparent and colorless. When this film is seen through the layer of yellow celluloid and the blue paper is also visible through it, the greens of the picture are the same color as in the original subject, since blue and yellow make green. By applying the same principle to the other positives, every object photographed will, when the prints are cemented together by a transparent varnish, appear in its natural colors. Intermediate shades, which are made up of various combinations of the three basic colors, are registered on more than one plate, so that in the finished print the correct blend is obtained.
The camera used in this new color photography resembles in outward appearance the well-known type of folding camera, and may be used for ordinary photography, with either plates or film pack. When a color photograph is desired, a set of three plates, arranged in a thin metal carrier in a special plate holder, is inserted. When the opaque slide in the from of the plate holder is lifted, a spring pushes the blue-sensitive plate forward on a hinge to the bottom, or "floor," of the camera. The plates for recording the red and green rays are held firmly upright, film surface against film surface. After the blue plate has fallen into position, a sheet of yellow glass is dropped to form an angle of 45° with the plate on the bottom.
When the shutter is opened, the light, after passing through the lens, is filtered through a small compensating glass. It next strikes the yellow glass, which reflects a part of it down to the plate in the bottom of the camera which is sensitive to blue rays only. The remainder of the light passes on through the reflector glass and first impinges upon the emulsion of the green-sensitive plate, then passing through a red, transparent coating on the film of the same plate, and registering on the red-sensitive plate. The length of exposure required is ordinaryli a trifle less than one second, in sunlight, with a rapid rectilinear lens. After the exposure, the pressure of a lever restores the yellow screen to its former position and the blue-sensitive plate into the carrier. The plates are developed in the usual photographic solutions with the aid of a holder which makes it unnecessary to remove them from the carrier.
The prints from the three negatives are made at one time in a single printing frame. That made from the red-sensitive plate is on a paper which gives a print in peacock blue. After printing, the celluloid film bearing the image from the green negative is dyed magenta pink, and that from the blue negative, yellow. The resulting yellow and red films are placed ypon the blue print so that the images exactrly co-incide, and the picture which results has all the colors of the original.
Transparencies may be made in the same way except that the blue print is also on a celluloid film. Experiments in the application of the process to moving-picture films are said to be very satisfactory.
New Process Makes Reproduction of Unlimited Number of Prints Practicable for the First Time
The reproduction on paper of an unlimited number of photographic prints in the true colors of the original subject, which has been the dream of every inventor in the photographic field, is now possible by a process which is stated to be so simple that any intelligent amateur can master it. Frederick Eugene Ives, the American invertor of the half-tine process of printing and the three-color half-tone process, as well as of many devices in the field of applied optics, has taken out patents on this new photographic method.
Color photography on transparent slides has been in use for several years, but only one transparency could be made from a single negative. No reproduction in colors on paper has heretofore been possible by any simple and dependable rocess. The new "Tripack" process has been reduced to so uniform a basis that color prints can be accurately duplicated. Tests already made indicate that the prints will retain the brilliance of their original colors in spite of constant exposure to light.
The new process is based on the same principle as the three-color halftone. Three negatives are made simultaneously, by a single exposure, and from these, positives of different colors are printed. Two of the positives are on celluloid; the third, or bottom layer, is on paper. Each of the three negative plates separates out from the various colors of the object photographed one of the three colors of red, green, and blue. The negatives themselves are colorless, but one records in black and white the red rays of light reflected from the object photographed, one the blue rays, and the other the green rays. In the finished prints, one of the celluloid films is dyed red, and the other yellow, both being superposed upon a paper print of peacock blue. The print from the negative that recorded the green rays is on the red film, and the resultant image of the green portions of the subject is transparent and colorless. When this film is seen through the layer of yellow celluloid and the blue paper is also visible through it, the greens of the picture are the same color as in the original subject, since blue and yellow make green. By applying the same principle to the other positives, every object photographed will, when the prints are cemented together by a transparent varnish, appear in its natural colors. Intermediate shades, which are made up of various combinations of the three basic colors, are registered on more than one plate, so that in the finished print the correct blend is obtained.
The camera used in this new color photography resembles in outward appearance the well-known type of folding camera, and may be used for ordinary photography, with either plates or film pack. When a color photograph is desired, a set of three plates, arranged in a thin metal carrier in a special plate holder, is inserted. When the opaque slide in the from of the plate holder is lifted, a spring pushes the blue-sensitive plate forward on a hinge to the bottom, or "floor," of the camera. The plates for recording the red and green rays are held firmly upright, film surface against film surface. After the blue plate has fallen into position, a sheet of yellow glass is dropped to form an angle of 45° with the plate on the bottom.
When the shutter is opened, the light, after passing through the lens, is filtered through a small compensating glass. It next strikes the yellow glass, which reflects a part of it down to the plate in the bottom of the camera which is sensitive to blue rays only. The remainder of the light passes on through the reflector glass and first impinges upon the emulsion of the green-sensitive plate, then passing through a red, transparent coating on the film of the same plate, and registering on the red-sensitive plate. The length of exposure required is ordinaryli a trifle less than one second, in sunlight, with a rapid rectilinear lens. After the exposure, the pressure of a lever restores the yellow screen to its former position and the blue-sensitive plate into the carrier. The plates are developed in the usual photographic solutions with the aid of a holder which makes it unnecessary to remove them from the carrier.
The prints from the three negatives are made at one time in a single printing frame. That made from the red-sensitive plate is on a paper which gives a print in peacock blue. After printing, the celluloid film bearing the image from the green negative is dyed magenta pink, and that from the blue negative, yellow. The resulting yellow and red films are placed ypon the blue print so that the images exactrly co-incide, and the picture which results has all the colors of the original.
Transparencies may be made in the same way except that the blue print is also on a celluloid film. Experiments in the application of the process to moving-picture films are said to be very satisfactory.
Porin Puuvilla Oy: Hintaluettelo N:o 1a (värisanoja hintaluettelossa)
Hintaluettelo N:o 1a
Pori, tammikuun 18p:nä 1933
(Täydennetty 1 p. huhtik. 1933)
[Hintaluettelon väriä koskevat kohdat]
[...]
Lankojen valkaiseminen ja värjäys.
[Kimpulta painava 10 engl. naul.]
[Tavalliseet värit | Ekstra värit]
Valkaistu 35 | -
Hopean-, keski-, tummanharmaa 35 | 80
Crème 49 | 60
Lohenpunainen, muoti 49 | 70
Kalisininen 49 | 70
Vaalea ruusunpunainen, ruusunpunainen 49 | 70
Vaalea porinsininen, porinsininen 49 | 70
Vaaleanviheriäinen 49 | 70
Vaalea orvokki 56 | 80
Musta, patenttimusta 60 | -
Sitruunankeltainen 70 | 100
Vaaleanruskea 70 | 110
Keski-, tummanruskea 70 | 150
Oliivi 77 | 110
Oranssi 77 | 110
Vaaleansininen 77 | 110
Tumma porinsininen 77 | 110
Keskisininen 77 | 110
Tummansininen 77 | 110
Oikeanpunainen 77 | 110
Timanttimusta 85 | -
Orvokki 91 | 130
Kirsikanpunainen 105 | 150
Keski-, tummanviheriäinen 105 | 150
[...]
[Luettelossa mainitaan muissa kohdissa seuraavat värit:]
harmaa, ruskea, punainen, ruusunpunainen, sininen, tummansininen, violetti, oranssi, tango, variaminisininen
Porin Sanomalehti ja Kirjapaino Osakeyhtiö 1933
Pori, tammikuun 18p:nä 1933
(Täydennetty 1 p. huhtik. 1933)
[Hintaluettelon väriä koskevat kohdat]
[...]
Lankojen valkaiseminen ja värjäys.
[Kimpulta painava 10 engl. naul.]
[Tavalliseet värit | Ekstra värit]
Valkaistu 35 | -
Hopean-, keski-, tummanharmaa 35 | 80
Crème 49 | 60
Lohenpunainen, muoti 49 | 70
Kalisininen 49 | 70
Vaalea ruusunpunainen, ruusunpunainen 49 | 70
Vaalea porinsininen, porinsininen 49 | 70
Vaaleanviheriäinen 49 | 70
Vaalea orvokki 56 | 80
Musta, patenttimusta 60 | -
Sitruunankeltainen 70 | 100
Vaaleanruskea 70 | 110
Keski-, tummanruskea 70 | 150
Oliivi 77 | 110
Oranssi 77 | 110
Vaaleansininen 77 | 110
Tumma porinsininen 77 | 110
Keskisininen 77 | 110
Tummansininen 77 | 110
Oikeanpunainen 77 | 110
Timanttimusta 85 | -
Orvokki 91 | 130
Kirsikanpunainen 105 | 150
Keski-, tummanviheriäinen 105 | 150
[...]
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Porin Sanomalehti ja Kirjapaino Osakeyhtiö 1933
Abney: Recent Advances in Photography.
Popular Science, tammikuu 1883
By Captain Abney, R. E., F. R. S.
Taking the case of a daguerrotype plate which has been exposed, and which we are about to develop by the action of mercury, I should like you to understand exactly what takes place in this plate when it is exposed and developed. On the surface of the plate we have a mixture of silver iodide and bromide; but, for simplicity's sake, I will suppose that it is simply silver iodide. When light acts on such a compound, the result is the liberation of iodine and the formation of a new salt, which we call silver subiodide, Ag2I2 = Ag2I+I. The idone is taken up by the silver plate at the back of the sensitive film. To develop the picture, mercury.vapor is caused to condense on the subiodide, and leave the iodide intact. In the Talbotype process, the picture, which has been taken on a paper that has been washed with nitrate of silver, iodide of potassium, and nitrate of silver again, is developed by washing with gallic acid and silver nitrate. The picture begins to appear on washing after a very short exposure to the light, and becomes gradually more visible as the washing goes on. A paper process is a most fascinating process, because you can dabble about, and do exactly what you like; it is not like the gelatine plates of the present day, which you have to leave to come out mechanically. With paper, if you want to bring out a little better detain in one place, you can dab it out, and, if you want to keep it back, you can put a little water over the place. There is no process like the paper process to please an artist. Now, what is the meaning of the development in this process? This morning I was in my laboratory, and I saw lying on the bench a feeble negatice which I had badly developed, and which I had fixed with hyposulphite of soda. On taking it up, I found the salt had crystallized over the surface in the most beautiful manner; and I do not think I could point out to you anything which would give you a better idea of what development is than those crystals. When you have silver precipitated from a solution by any means whatever, you have it always in a crystalline form, and, as all crystals possess polarity, so crystals of silver possess polarity; and where one silver particle is deposited, there another silver particle will deposit. I look upon this as a physical development; we have a crystalline action going on during development, and nothing else. The iodide of silver is altered into a subiodide, and this, like the pole of magnet, attracts the precipitating silver, and from that time, where the silver is deposited, other crystals of silver are deposited. That is what I call physical development.
There is another kind of development which some call chemical development; it is shown by a change in the color or material of the substance acted upon, and not by a building-up process, such as we have just had illustrated. The process may be illustrated in the development, by means of silver nitrate, of a picture which has been printed on nitrate of uranium. The picture is formed by silver oxide reduced by the particles of uranium nitrate which have been acted upon by light, and by nothing else. the silvver oxide reduced is an exact equivalent of the uranium salt which has been acted upon by light. This differs from the previous process in that the gallic acid, in the one case, reduces the silver solution to the state of metallic silver; and, in the other case, the uranious image itself reduces it to the state of silver oxide.
Another mode of development, called chemical development in Germany, may, I think, more properly be termed alkaline development. Its theory is, that when you have a strongly oxidizing agent in the presence of an alkali and a silver compound, solid or in solution, the last will be reduced to the metallic state. Such an oxidizing agent we have in pyrogallic acid, and the alkali generally used in ammonia. Now, this kind of reduction is evidently useless, unless it can discriminate between a compound which has been acted upon by light and one which has not. When pyrogallic acid is used, in order to make the discrimination, something more has to be added as a restrainer to cause the reduction including the change to take place only in the part acted upon by the light. A solution of the bromide of an alkali is generally used for this purpose. Without a restrainer, the tendency is for those parts to be first reduced, but the action extends to that which has not been acted upon by the light. It has been usually said that alkaline development is only available for bromide of silver, but my experience has taught me that iodide of silver is as amenable to alkaline development as the bromide, although not so rapidly, and that chloride is very amenable to it, and will give most beautiful pictures.
Another mode of development, now very much in vogue, is that with ferrous oxalate. In this case we have an organic salt of iron in the ferrous state, which is capable of reducing silver bromide, iodide, and chloride to the metallic state, while itself is reduced to the ferric state. This process also requires a restrainer.
I have found a kindred developer, the use of which I consider one of the most recent advantages in photography. It is an iron developer, which is capable of being used without any restrainer whatever. I call it ferrous citro-oxalate. It is made by adding to a solution of citrate of potash ferrous oxalate till no more will dissolve; the resulting compound is probably citrate of iron, ut in a stronger form than is usually found.
Mr. Berkeley has lately introduced an improvement in the ordinary alkaline developer, in which he mixes with the pyrogallic-acid solution four times the weight of sulphite of soda. The action, apparently, is that the sulphite of soda absorbs oxygen with greater avidity than does the pyrogallic acid, thus leaving that agent to do its work; consequently, we have a developer which remains uncolored for a very long period.
Another developer, which is competent to work also without a restrainer, but has not been used to a very great extent on account of its high price, is hydro-kinone. It is a much more powerful absorber of oxygen than pyrogallic acid, to such a degree that one grain of it is as active as two grains of that substance. Not requiring any restrainer, even when so troublesome a salt as silver chloride is used, it is able to give a better detail and allow a shorter exposure in the camera than when the ordinary alkaline developer is used. It is applicaple to any plate with which you can work.
The next point to which I wish to call attention is the action of sensitizers. It may be proper first to explain what a sensitizer is. When you have chloride of silver exposed to light, you have a new compound formed, which is called subchloride, or argentous chloride (Ag2Cl2 = Ag2Cl+Cl), and chlorine is liberated. This chlorine is very difficult to eliminate, if you do not give it something that can take it up; for instance, if you place perfectly pure chloride of silver in vacuo, without any trace of organic matter present, you will find that you get no darkening action, even if it is exposed to brilliant sunlight for months. If a white powder of that kind was submitted to you, to determine its character, you would say at once that it was not chloride of silver, because it was not darkened, since one of the tests of chloride of silver, among chemists, is that it shall darken in the light. Here I have a little bulb of it which was prepared, dried carefully, and sealed up. It hs been exposed for months to the light, and is as pure a white as it was the first day it was put into the bulb. Another experiment was made at the same time; but, unfortunately, as I thought then, a small globule of mercury got into the vacuum, and was sealed up with the chloride; the consequence was that the chloride of silver immediately darkened: although the mercury was not in contact with the salt, the chlorine flew to the mercury, and formed chloride of mercury. This is an instructive experiment, showing that chloride of silver will darken merely in the presence of something that will mop up the chlorine. Silver idodide, when exposed to light splits up into silver subiodide and iodine, and silver bromide into silver subbromide and bromine. Now, in order that there shall be a ready darkening of either of these salts, you must have something which will absorb the iodine or bromine (or, in the case of the latter, allow it to escape), according to the salt you expose to the light. This something is the sensitizer.
One point that has exercised the minds of a great many photographers is the illumination of their dark rooms. [The lecturer having shown the relation of the several parts of the solar spectrum with the absorption properties of different substances used in photography, proceeded to demonstrate the effect of differently colored glasses upon the passage of rays, and announced his conclusions.] If photographers want to have an absolutely safe light in developing their pictures, let them glaze their studios with cobalt glass and stained red, and they will get nothing but the light of that particular refrangibility, which will not affect any gelatine plate of the ordinary type. You may glaze and glaze with ruby, but you will never get rid of blue light entirely. Of course, it diminishes with every thickness you take. If you want to use ordinary plates, which are not so sensitive that you can not look at them, my advice is to use a combination of stained red and ruby glass, which will give you a comfortable light to work in, for it cuts off the blue and leaves the red in a brilliant patch. If the operator wishes to be still more secure, let him use a combination of cobalt glass and stained-red glass. A combination of red and green is a fairly safe light for iodide plates or ordinary plates, but not for gelatine plates, which are very sensitive. Next we come to a series of pretty colors, which may be very useful to us: magenta, with which the yellow is cut out entirely, and the green, leaving the blue, violet and orange; aurine and chrysoidine, which cut off the blue; a combination of magenta and aurine, which gives a perfect red light, and is very good indeed for the photographic studio; and scarlet and aurine, which give the same effect. If all means of securing the right light fail, the photographer may use the ferrous exalate developer, for you may bring the most sensitive plate out into a white light, when developing in a dish with a covering of that substance over it.
In 1874 the discovery was made that an increased action of the spectrum could be got by dyeing the film of sensitive collodion. If you take one of the aniline dyes and expose it to the light behind a piece of black paper, you gen an image on the dye. What is the meaning of that? The meaning is, that the dye is oxidized, for, if you apply an oxidizing agent, you get the same result. Dr. Vogel found that if he dyed a plate with one of these fugitive dyes, he was able to obtain an extension of the impressed spectrum, and he introduced the term "optical sensitizer" to describe the fact. I object to the term, for it gives a wrong impression of the action that takes place, which is simply the reduction of the iodide or bromide of silver by the oxidation of the dye, and the provision of a nucleus on which development can take place.
Collodion emulsions have been in vogue for seven or eight years, although they have now been superseded, to a large extent, by gelatine emulsions. Whether the last be an improvement over the former process or not, the collodion process is admirably adapted for landscape-work. If the emulsion is of silver bromide or chloride, it is easily formed; an iodide emulsion is more difficult. The point in emulsion-making seems to be to get the precipitate in as fine particles as possible, and it is said that this can only be obtained, except at very great cost of time and trouble, by first adding the soluble bromide or iodide to the collodion. If you take the trouble to add the silver to the collodion first of all, the aspect of emulsion-making is entirely changed, and you can get any amount of fineness by adding the iodide or bromide to the silver contained in the collodion so long as you keep the silver nitrate in excess. If you put the iodide into the collodion first, and then add silver nitrate, you will find that you have precipitated the iodide of silver at the bottom of the bottle, and in a form which will not emulsify at all. My advice to those who wish to make collodion or gelatine emulsion is, to add the silver to the collodion or gelatine, and then add the haloid salts afterward, and you will get as perfect an emulsion as you choose.
It is a great comfort in the collodio-bromide process that the operator is able to give local intensity (a most desirable quality in all artistic work) to image. I do not believe any process is perfect until that power is placed in the hands of the manipulator; and the great defect of the next process to be mentioned is, that it does not give that power, but leaves the operator at the mercy of his plate, on which he must let come out what will. This next process is the gelatine process, which may be described as one in which the silver bromide is held in suspension in gelatine in the same way that in the previous process it is held in collodion. Mr. Bennet showed how a gelatine emulsion can be made very sensitive by keeping it at a comparatively low temperature in a liquid condition for many days. Colonel Wortley afterward claimed that he could get the same sensitiveness by heating up to 150° Fahr. for a short time; and then Mr. Mansfield got it in a few minutes by boiling. Another method was then introduced by Dr. Monkhoven for the production of very sensitive gelatine emulsions by adding ammonia with the nitrate of silver. The ammonia process found many admirers, among them Dr. Eder, whose method of adding a large quantity of ammonia has given very sensitive pictures, and very vigorous ones when the sensitiveness is not too great. A process introduced by Mr. Cowan is even superior to that of Dr. Eder. He emulsifies his bromide in a very small quantity of gelatine with ammonia, and adds sufficient gelatine when the emulsion is ripened. Dr. Eder's method was to add the full amount of gelatine with the ammonia. Mr. Cowan's method gives greater rapidity and greater certainty.
What is the reason of the sensitiveness of the gelatine emulsion? Pictures can be taken with it in a tenth of the time necessary for a wet plate, and perhaps a thousandth of that necessary for an ordinary dry plate. The first reason is, that the emulsion has a blue form. Another reason is, that you can use a more powerful developer. If you separate bromide of silver which has been emulsified in gelatine, and place it in collodion, the extreme rapidity will be gone, for the simple reason that you can not use as strong a developer as you can with a gelatine emulsion; in fact, the property that gelatine possesses of acting as a physical restrainer comes into play: each little particle or aggregation of particles of the salt is surrounded by gelatine, which prevents the developer acting rapidly on them. Again, the fact that by boiling, or by the ammonia process, you get a coarser deposit of bromide of silver, also points to increased sensitiveness. Furthermore, if you boil or heat bromide, or any haloid salt or silver, with an organic substance, it has a tendency to separate into a metallic state; in fact, the bromide of silver is then in a state of very tottering equilibrium; the bromine is ready to be given off at the very slightest disturbance of the molecule, much more so than before it is boiled. I think that the fact that you so often get fogged emulsion when you overboil is proof of this statement. If you were to ask me to illustrate the sensitiveness of a gelatine plate, I should show you, not some of those marvelous instantaneous photographs, but a photograph by Mr. Henderson, by moonlight, and another of some under-ground cellars at Reigate, by Mr. William Brooks, taken by lamp-light. If anything can show what gelatine plates can do, it is the fact that candle-light and moonlight can be utilized for impressing the surface with an image. Dr. Vogel has recently introduced an emulsion made with acetic acid, gelatine, pyroxyline, and bromide of silver, which is very clean and very fairly rapid. Plates are more readily coated with it than with gelatine emulsion, but less so than with collodion emulsion.
Anoher very decided advance in photography is the doing away with glass as a support for the emulsion. Mr. warnerke has perfected a process by which the photograph is taken on paper instead of on glass. He has a sensitive tissue which can be made of any length, and can be rolled on a roller and exposed in the dark slide. By turning another roller, a fresh surface is brought into the plane of the focusing-screen. The sensitive tissue is developed in the ordinary way with alkaline development. The film can be either stripped off, or else transferred to glass. In the latter case, we come to another point which marks a distinct advance. Mr. Warnerke has found that when you develop a gelatine plate with alkaline development, the parts which have been acted upon by light, and which have been developed, become insoluble in hot water. He is thus able, after development, instead of using the hyposulphite bath to fix the print, to transfer it to glass, and was away with hot water the parts of the film which have not been acted upon by the light; and he thus gets a transparency. To do this, it is necessary that the back surface of the gelatine film should be exposed to the water, as in carbon printing, and this is secured by transfer to glass. Mr. Warnerke is not satisfied with doing away with glass for the camera, but he does away with glass for printing; and, in order to accomplish this, he retransfers the negative from the glass to a sheet of gelatine. I may say that the glass is freshly collodionized, and this enables the film to strip off readily. It is one of the advantages of these negatives that you can print from either side, each one yielding sharp points - a desideratum when using processes where reversed negatives are required. In the matter of gelatine films, we have Professor Stebbings's, which are really workable. The gelatine emulsion is apparently flowed on an insoluble film on glass, which is then stripped.
The next point I touch upon is the enlargement of negatives. The best way I know of, of getting an enlargement of a negative, is one that was brought forward a few years ago by Mr. Valentine Blanchard. He takes the original negative which he wishes to englarge, and places it in an enlarging camera. He then takes a transparency of the exact size he wants his negative to be. He next takes a piece of common albumenized paper, and prints that transparency upon it, and by this mean gets a very soft an beautiful negative. If you have a hard negative, it is almost impossible to get a soft transparency by the wetplate process; but, by this artifice of "printing out" your transparency and using that as a negative, you get a decidedly soft paper negative.
One of the new applications of the gelatine process is the development of a print on paper coated with gelatino-bromide. The paper is prepared by coating ordinary paper with gelatino-bromide (of the most sensitive kind, if you like). Such paper can then be exposed to the image formed by an ordinary magic-lantern; by that means you can get an enlarged print. We may thus say that an advance has been made, when, by an ordinary magic-lantern, with a good negative, you can get a perfect enlarged print by development. Perhaps it will not have that luster which albumenized prints have, but it is a matter of taste whether you like that gloss or not.
As gelatine plates are now prepared they all have an excess of soluble bromide. While this is the case, the highest sensitiveness possible will not have been obtained. Dr. Eder has found that an increase of sensitveness, two or three fold, may be produced by neutralizing this excess. The gelatine-plate makers have the problem to solve, how to get rid of any possible excess of soluble bromide in their films.
We will next consider what causes the destruction of the photographic image. You may destroy it by any substance which will readily part with oxygen. You can destroy it by any substance which will readily part with oxygen. You can destroy it, for instance, by bichromate of potash, by any of the ferric salts, or by oxygen-yielding substances, like permangate of potash, ozone, peroxide of hydrogen, or hydroxyl; in fact, there is hardly any substance which will part with oxygen, which will not destroy the developable image. The photographic image remains behind as a rule, though not always, but these re-agents prevent it becoming developable. Bromine also acts sometimes as a destructive agent, by escaping, when the exposure is too long, from the lower part of the bromide coating of the plate, and forming a fresh film of bromide at the surface after it has been acted on by the light.
A remarkable utilization of the oxidizing process has been proposed and carried out by M. Bolas. Wishing to reproduce an ordinary gelatine negative having the proper gradations of light and shade, he took a gelatine plate, immersed it in bichromate of potash, allowed the film to dry, and then exposed it to light behind the negative to be reproduced. In this exposure he had an oxidizing agent present in his film; the oxidized parts were acted upon by the light, leaving the other part intact; and by that means he got a reversed image. Oxidizing agents enable us also to get rid of fog. A gelatine plate, which has been fogged by exposure to light, can be cleared by immersing it n bichromate of potash.
I have learned in my experiments that halations, or the appearance of haloes around the picture can be prevented, by touching the back of the plate with asphaltum or some varnish; the reflection is toned down according to what medium is placed on the back of the plate. The most perfect cure for halation is Brunswick-black. It admits no reflection from the back of the plate, and thus enables the operator to get rid of every tendency to fuzziness of the image.
A most useful instrument has been introduced by Mr. Warnerke, which is known as a sensitometer, or measurer of sensitiveness. It consists of squares of colored gelatine of different opacities through which light is allowed to fall on a sensitive plate, and is intended as a guide to determine the comparative rapidity of the plates. Mr. Warnerke has also introduced an actinometer, or instrument to measure the intensity of light, which is dependent on phosphorescence for its value. It consists of a phosphorescent tablet, by the exposure of which to the action of light he is able to tell the photographic value of the particular light. The discovery is of the more value, because phosphorescence is induced by very nearly the same rays as those which affect bromide of silver. Another silmple way of telling the amount of exposure to give the plates is by Woodbury's photometer, in which a piece of bromide paper exposed to the light is compared and read off with one of a series of tinted circles. A rule to be remembered in using this instrument is, that if a bromide plate is used, a bromide paper only should be used for securing the tint; if a chloride plate, a chloride paper. Recent researches of mine have shown that the darkening intensity and the developing intensity go hand in hand; therefore, when the operator has the number which gives the right tint, he may always be sure of getting the right exposure.
Some of the most recent and striking exemplifications of the scientific applications of photography are the composite photographs by Mr. Galton, which may be pecualiarly useful in the study of anthropology. One of them is a typical family composite portrait composed of a mother and two daughters, in which all three faces are blended together. We are thus given a likeness of the female branch of the family; another, a blending of the father and mother, two sisters, and two brothers, gives the typical family group. Other pictures, in which the same principles are applied, give a typical group of engineer officers and a typical group of sappers.
By Captain Abney, R. E., F. R. S.
Taking the case of a daguerrotype plate which has been exposed, and which we are about to develop by the action of mercury, I should like you to understand exactly what takes place in this plate when it is exposed and developed. On the surface of the plate we have a mixture of silver iodide and bromide; but, for simplicity's sake, I will suppose that it is simply silver iodide. When light acts on such a compound, the result is the liberation of iodine and the formation of a new salt, which we call silver subiodide, Ag2I2 = Ag2I+I. The idone is taken up by the silver plate at the back of the sensitive film. To develop the picture, mercury.vapor is caused to condense on the subiodide, and leave the iodide intact. In the Talbotype process, the picture, which has been taken on a paper that has been washed with nitrate of silver, iodide of potassium, and nitrate of silver again, is developed by washing with gallic acid and silver nitrate. The picture begins to appear on washing after a very short exposure to the light, and becomes gradually more visible as the washing goes on. A paper process is a most fascinating process, because you can dabble about, and do exactly what you like; it is not like the gelatine plates of the present day, which you have to leave to come out mechanically. With paper, if you want to bring out a little better detain in one place, you can dab it out, and, if you want to keep it back, you can put a little water over the place. There is no process like the paper process to please an artist. Now, what is the meaning of the development in this process? This morning I was in my laboratory, and I saw lying on the bench a feeble negatice which I had badly developed, and which I had fixed with hyposulphite of soda. On taking it up, I found the salt had crystallized over the surface in the most beautiful manner; and I do not think I could point out to you anything which would give you a better idea of what development is than those crystals. When you have silver precipitated from a solution by any means whatever, you have it always in a crystalline form, and, as all crystals possess polarity, so crystals of silver possess polarity; and where one silver particle is deposited, there another silver particle will deposit. I look upon this as a physical development; we have a crystalline action going on during development, and nothing else. The iodide of silver is altered into a subiodide, and this, like the pole of magnet, attracts the precipitating silver, and from that time, where the silver is deposited, other crystals of silver are deposited. That is what I call physical development.
There is another kind of development which some call chemical development; it is shown by a change in the color or material of the substance acted upon, and not by a building-up process, such as we have just had illustrated. The process may be illustrated in the development, by means of silver nitrate, of a picture which has been printed on nitrate of uranium. The picture is formed by silver oxide reduced by the particles of uranium nitrate which have been acted upon by light, and by nothing else. the silvver oxide reduced is an exact equivalent of the uranium salt which has been acted upon by light. This differs from the previous process in that the gallic acid, in the one case, reduces the silver solution to the state of metallic silver; and, in the other case, the uranious image itself reduces it to the state of silver oxide.
Another mode of development, called chemical development in Germany, may, I think, more properly be termed alkaline development. Its theory is, that when you have a strongly oxidizing agent in the presence of an alkali and a silver compound, solid or in solution, the last will be reduced to the metallic state. Such an oxidizing agent we have in pyrogallic acid, and the alkali generally used in ammonia. Now, this kind of reduction is evidently useless, unless it can discriminate between a compound which has been acted upon by light and one which has not. When pyrogallic acid is used, in order to make the discrimination, something more has to be added as a restrainer to cause the reduction including the change to take place only in the part acted upon by the light. A solution of the bromide of an alkali is generally used for this purpose. Without a restrainer, the tendency is for those parts to be first reduced, but the action extends to that which has not been acted upon by the light. It has been usually said that alkaline development is only available for bromide of silver, but my experience has taught me that iodide of silver is as amenable to alkaline development as the bromide, although not so rapidly, and that chloride is very amenable to it, and will give most beautiful pictures.
Another mode of development, now very much in vogue, is that with ferrous oxalate. In this case we have an organic salt of iron in the ferrous state, which is capable of reducing silver bromide, iodide, and chloride to the metallic state, while itself is reduced to the ferric state. This process also requires a restrainer.
I have found a kindred developer, the use of which I consider one of the most recent advantages in photography. It is an iron developer, which is capable of being used without any restrainer whatever. I call it ferrous citro-oxalate. It is made by adding to a solution of citrate of potash ferrous oxalate till no more will dissolve; the resulting compound is probably citrate of iron, ut in a stronger form than is usually found.
Mr. Berkeley has lately introduced an improvement in the ordinary alkaline developer, in which he mixes with the pyrogallic-acid solution four times the weight of sulphite of soda. The action, apparently, is that the sulphite of soda absorbs oxygen with greater avidity than does the pyrogallic acid, thus leaving that agent to do its work; consequently, we have a developer which remains uncolored for a very long period.
Another developer, which is competent to work also without a restrainer, but has not been used to a very great extent on account of its high price, is hydro-kinone. It is a much more powerful absorber of oxygen than pyrogallic acid, to such a degree that one grain of it is as active as two grains of that substance. Not requiring any restrainer, even when so troublesome a salt as silver chloride is used, it is able to give a better detail and allow a shorter exposure in the camera than when the ordinary alkaline developer is used. It is applicaple to any plate with which you can work.
The next point to which I wish to call attention is the action of sensitizers. It may be proper first to explain what a sensitizer is. When you have chloride of silver exposed to light, you have a new compound formed, which is called subchloride, or argentous chloride (Ag2Cl2 = Ag2Cl+Cl), and chlorine is liberated. This chlorine is very difficult to eliminate, if you do not give it something that can take it up; for instance, if you place perfectly pure chloride of silver in vacuo, without any trace of organic matter present, you will find that you get no darkening action, even if it is exposed to brilliant sunlight for months. If a white powder of that kind was submitted to you, to determine its character, you would say at once that it was not chloride of silver, because it was not darkened, since one of the tests of chloride of silver, among chemists, is that it shall darken in the light. Here I have a little bulb of it which was prepared, dried carefully, and sealed up. It hs been exposed for months to the light, and is as pure a white as it was the first day it was put into the bulb. Another experiment was made at the same time; but, unfortunately, as I thought then, a small globule of mercury got into the vacuum, and was sealed up with the chloride; the consequence was that the chloride of silver immediately darkened: although the mercury was not in contact with the salt, the chlorine flew to the mercury, and formed chloride of mercury. This is an instructive experiment, showing that chloride of silver will darken merely in the presence of something that will mop up the chlorine. Silver idodide, when exposed to light splits up into silver subiodide and iodine, and silver bromide into silver subbromide and bromine. Now, in order that there shall be a ready darkening of either of these salts, you must have something which will absorb the iodine or bromine (or, in the case of the latter, allow it to escape), according to the salt you expose to the light. This something is the sensitizer.
One point that has exercised the minds of a great many photographers is the illumination of their dark rooms. [The lecturer having shown the relation of the several parts of the solar spectrum with the absorption properties of different substances used in photography, proceeded to demonstrate the effect of differently colored glasses upon the passage of rays, and announced his conclusions.] If photographers want to have an absolutely safe light in developing their pictures, let them glaze their studios with cobalt glass and stained red, and they will get nothing but the light of that particular refrangibility, which will not affect any gelatine plate of the ordinary type. You may glaze and glaze with ruby, but you will never get rid of blue light entirely. Of course, it diminishes with every thickness you take. If you want to use ordinary plates, which are not so sensitive that you can not look at them, my advice is to use a combination of stained red and ruby glass, which will give you a comfortable light to work in, for it cuts off the blue and leaves the red in a brilliant patch. If the operator wishes to be still more secure, let him use a combination of cobalt glass and stained-red glass. A combination of red and green is a fairly safe light for iodide plates or ordinary plates, but not for gelatine plates, which are very sensitive. Next we come to a series of pretty colors, which may be very useful to us: magenta, with which the yellow is cut out entirely, and the green, leaving the blue, violet and orange; aurine and chrysoidine, which cut off the blue; a combination of magenta and aurine, which gives a perfect red light, and is very good indeed for the photographic studio; and scarlet and aurine, which give the same effect. If all means of securing the right light fail, the photographer may use the ferrous exalate developer, for you may bring the most sensitive plate out into a white light, when developing in a dish with a covering of that substance over it.
In 1874 the discovery was made that an increased action of the spectrum could be got by dyeing the film of sensitive collodion. If you take one of the aniline dyes and expose it to the light behind a piece of black paper, you gen an image on the dye. What is the meaning of that? The meaning is, that the dye is oxidized, for, if you apply an oxidizing agent, you get the same result. Dr. Vogel found that if he dyed a plate with one of these fugitive dyes, he was able to obtain an extension of the impressed spectrum, and he introduced the term "optical sensitizer" to describe the fact. I object to the term, for it gives a wrong impression of the action that takes place, which is simply the reduction of the iodide or bromide of silver by the oxidation of the dye, and the provision of a nucleus on which development can take place.
Collodion emulsions have been in vogue for seven or eight years, although they have now been superseded, to a large extent, by gelatine emulsions. Whether the last be an improvement over the former process or not, the collodion process is admirably adapted for landscape-work. If the emulsion is of silver bromide or chloride, it is easily formed; an iodide emulsion is more difficult. The point in emulsion-making seems to be to get the precipitate in as fine particles as possible, and it is said that this can only be obtained, except at very great cost of time and trouble, by first adding the soluble bromide or iodide to the collodion. If you take the trouble to add the silver to the collodion first of all, the aspect of emulsion-making is entirely changed, and you can get any amount of fineness by adding the iodide or bromide to the silver contained in the collodion so long as you keep the silver nitrate in excess. If you put the iodide into the collodion first, and then add silver nitrate, you will find that you have precipitated the iodide of silver at the bottom of the bottle, and in a form which will not emulsify at all. My advice to those who wish to make collodion or gelatine emulsion is, to add the silver to the collodion or gelatine, and then add the haloid salts afterward, and you will get as perfect an emulsion as you choose.
It is a great comfort in the collodio-bromide process that the operator is able to give local intensity (a most desirable quality in all artistic work) to image. I do not believe any process is perfect until that power is placed in the hands of the manipulator; and the great defect of the next process to be mentioned is, that it does not give that power, but leaves the operator at the mercy of his plate, on which he must let come out what will. This next process is the gelatine process, which may be described as one in which the silver bromide is held in suspension in gelatine in the same way that in the previous process it is held in collodion. Mr. Bennet showed how a gelatine emulsion can be made very sensitive by keeping it at a comparatively low temperature in a liquid condition for many days. Colonel Wortley afterward claimed that he could get the same sensitiveness by heating up to 150° Fahr. for a short time; and then Mr. Mansfield got it in a few minutes by boiling. Another method was then introduced by Dr. Monkhoven for the production of very sensitive gelatine emulsions by adding ammonia with the nitrate of silver. The ammonia process found many admirers, among them Dr. Eder, whose method of adding a large quantity of ammonia has given very sensitive pictures, and very vigorous ones when the sensitiveness is not too great. A process introduced by Mr. Cowan is even superior to that of Dr. Eder. He emulsifies his bromide in a very small quantity of gelatine with ammonia, and adds sufficient gelatine when the emulsion is ripened. Dr. Eder's method was to add the full amount of gelatine with the ammonia. Mr. Cowan's method gives greater rapidity and greater certainty.
What is the reason of the sensitiveness of the gelatine emulsion? Pictures can be taken with it in a tenth of the time necessary for a wet plate, and perhaps a thousandth of that necessary for an ordinary dry plate. The first reason is, that the emulsion has a blue form. Another reason is, that you can use a more powerful developer. If you separate bromide of silver which has been emulsified in gelatine, and place it in collodion, the extreme rapidity will be gone, for the simple reason that you can not use as strong a developer as you can with a gelatine emulsion; in fact, the property that gelatine possesses of acting as a physical restrainer comes into play: each little particle or aggregation of particles of the salt is surrounded by gelatine, which prevents the developer acting rapidly on them. Again, the fact that by boiling, or by the ammonia process, you get a coarser deposit of bromide of silver, also points to increased sensitiveness. Furthermore, if you boil or heat bromide, or any haloid salt or silver, with an organic substance, it has a tendency to separate into a metallic state; in fact, the bromide of silver is then in a state of very tottering equilibrium; the bromine is ready to be given off at the very slightest disturbance of the molecule, much more so than before it is boiled. I think that the fact that you so often get fogged emulsion when you overboil is proof of this statement. If you were to ask me to illustrate the sensitiveness of a gelatine plate, I should show you, not some of those marvelous instantaneous photographs, but a photograph by Mr. Henderson, by moonlight, and another of some under-ground cellars at Reigate, by Mr. William Brooks, taken by lamp-light. If anything can show what gelatine plates can do, it is the fact that candle-light and moonlight can be utilized for impressing the surface with an image. Dr. Vogel has recently introduced an emulsion made with acetic acid, gelatine, pyroxyline, and bromide of silver, which is very clean and very fairly rapid. Plates are more readily coated with it than with gelatine emulsion, but less so than with collodion emulsion.
Anoher very decided advance in photography is the doing away with glass as a support for the emulsion. Mr. warnerke has perfected a process by which the photograph is taken on paper instead of on glass. He has a sensitive tissue which can be made of any length, and can be rolled on a roller and exposed in the dark slide. By turning another roller, a fresh surface is brought into the plane of the focusing-screen. The sensitive tissue is developed in the ordinary way with alkaline development. The film can be either stripped off, or else transferred to glass. In the latter case, we come to another point which marks a distinct advance. Mr. Warnerke has found that when you develop a gelatine plate with alkaline development, the parts which have been acted upon by light, and which have been developed, become insoluble in hot water. He is thus able, after development, instead of using the hyposulphite bath to fix the print, to transfer it to glass, and was away with hot water the parts of the film which have not been acted upon by the light; and he thus gets a transparency. To do this, it is necessary that the back surface of the gelatine film should be exposed to the water, as in carbon printing, and this is secured by transfer to glass. Mr. Warnerke is not satisfied with doing away with glass for the camera, but he does away with glass for printing; and, in order to accomplish this, he retransfers the negative from the glass to a sheet of gelatine. I may say that the glass is freshly collodionized, and this enables the film to strip off readily. It is one of the advantages of these negatives that you can print from either side, each one yielding sharp points - a desideratum when using processes where reversed negatives are required. In the matter of gelatine films, we have Professor Stebbings's, which are really workable. The gelatine emulsion is apparently flowed on an insoluble film on glass, which is then stripped.
The next point I touch upon is the enlargement of negatives. The best way I know of, of getting an enlargement of a negative, is one that was brought forward a few years ago by Mr. Valentine Blanchard. He takes the original negative which he wishes to englarge, and places it in an enlarging camera. He then takes a transparency of the exact size he wants his negative to be. He next takes a piece of common albumenized paper, and prints that transparency upon it, and by this mean gets a very soft an beautiful negative. If you have a hard negative, it is almost impossible to get a soft transparency by the wetplate process; but, by this artifice of "printing out" your transparency and using that as a negative, you get a decidedly soft paper negative.
One of the new applications of the gelatine process is the development of a print on paper coated with gelatino-bromide. The paper is prepared by coating ordinary paper with gelatino-bromide (of the most sensitive kind, if you like). Such paper can then be exposed to the image formed by an ordinary magic-lantern; by that means you can get an enlarged print. We may thus say that an advance has been made, when, by an ordinary magic-lantern, with a good negative, you can get a perfect enlarged print by development. Perhaps it will not have that luster which albumenized prints have, but it is a matter of taste whether you like that gloss or not.
As gelatine plates are now prepared they all have an excess of soluble bromide. While this is the case, the highest sensitiveness possible will not have been obtained. Dr. Eder has found that an increase of sensitveness, two or three fold, may be produced by neutralizing this excess. The gelatine-plate makers have the problem to solve, how to get rid of any possible excess of soluble bromide in their films.
We will next consider what causes the destruction of the photographic image. You may destroy it by any substance which will readily part with oxygen. You can destroy it by any substance which will readily part with oxygen. You can destroy it, for instance, by bichromate of potash, by any of the ferric salts, or by oxygen-yielding substances, like permangate of potash, ozone, peroxide of hydrogen, or hydroxyl; in fact, there is hardly any substance which will part with oxygen, which will not destroy the developable image. The photographic image remains behind as a rule, though not always, but these re-agents prevent it becoming developable. Bromine also acts sometimes as a destructive agent, by escaping, when the exposure is too long, from the lower part of the bromide coating of the plate, and forming a fresh film of bromide at the surface after it has been acted on by the light.
A remarkable utilization of the oxidizing process has been proposed and carried out by M. Bolas. Wishing to reproduce an ordinary gelatine negative having the proper gradations of light and shade, he took a gelatine plate, immersed it in bichromate of potash, allowed the film to dry, and then exposed it to light behind the negative to be reproduced. In this exposure he had an oxidizing agent present in his film; the oxidized parts were acted upon by the light, leaving the other part intact; and by that means he got a reversed image. Oxidizing agents enable us also to get rid of fog. A gelatine plate, which has been fogged by exposure to light, can be cleared by immersing it n bichromate of potash.
I have learned in my experiments that halations, or the appearance of haloes around the picture can be prevented, by touching the back of the plate with asphaltum or some varnish; the reflection is toned down according to what medium is placed on the back of the plate. The most perfect cure for halation is Brunswick-black. It admits no reflection from the back of the plate, and thus enables the operator to get rid of every tendency to fuzziness of the image.
A most useful instrument has been introduced by Mr. Warnerke, which is known as a sensitometer, or measurer of sensitiveness. It consists of squares of colored gelatine of different opacities through which light is allowed to fall on a sensitive plate, and is intended as a guide to determine the comparative rapidity of the plates. Mr. Warnerke has also introduced an actinometer, or instrument to measure the intensity of light, which is dependent on phosphorescence for its value. It consists of a phosphorescent tablet, by the exposure of which to the action of light he is able to tell the photographic value of the particular light. The discovery is of the more value, because phosphorescence is induced by very nearly the same rays as those which affect bromide of silver. Another silmple way of telling the amount of exposure to give the plates is by Woodbury's photometer, in which a piece of bromide paper exposed to the light is compared and read off with one of a series of tinted circles. A rule to be remembered in using this instrument is, that if a bromide plate is used, a bromide paper only should be used for securing the tint; if a chloride plate, a chloride paper. Recent researches of mine have shown that the darkening intensity and the developing intensity go hand in hand; therefore, when the operator has the number which gives the right tint, he may always be sure of getting the right exposure.
Some of the most recent and striking exemplifications of the scientific applications of photography are the composite photographs by Mr. Galton, which may be pecualiarly useful in the study of anthropology. One of them is a typical family composite portrait composed of a mother and two daughters, in which all three faces are blended together. We are thus given a likeness of the female branch of the family; another, a blending of the father and mother, two sisters, and two brothers, gives the typical family group. Other pictures, in which the same principles are applied, give a typical group of engineer officers and a typical group of sappers.
3.1.10
Liikemaailmasta. (Tampereen Werkatehtaan wärimestari)
Aamulehti 120, 31.5.1907
Tampereen Werkatehtaan wärimestariksi on otettu wärimestari Wäinö Liljeroos, joka ennen on ollut Tampereen Teollisuuskoulun opettajana. Hra Liljeroos on paraillaan ulkomailla waltion myöntämällä stipendillä perehtymässä alaansa.
Tampereen Werkatehtaan wärimestariksi on otettu wärimestari Wäinö Liljeroos, joka ennen on ollut Tampereen Teollisuuskoulun opettajana. Hra Liljeroos on paraillaan ulkomailla waltion myöntämällä stipendillä perehtymässä alaansa.
A Fast-Black Dye For Cotton Cloth
Popular Mechanics, marraskuu 1913
Fast-black ad fast-gray cotton-cloth prints can now be made by the use of a dyeing mordant that has just been patented. Any shade from light gray to deep black, if printed on cotton or any vegetable fiber with the new dye, cannot be faded by washing or by sunlight; but the same mordant will not make a fast black on woolen cloth. Cotton cloth that is printed with this new dye can be identified by the fact that it yields red to violet solutions in concentrated acid.
Fast-black ad fast-gray cotton-cloth prints can now be made by the use of a dyeing mordant that has just been patented. Any shade from light gray to deep black, if printed on cotton or any vegetable fiber with the new dye, cannot be faded by washing or by sunlight; but the same mordant will not make a fast black on woolen cloth. Cotton cloth that is printed with this new dye can be identified by the fact that it yields red to violet solutions in concentrated acid.
Notes. (Vanadium supply)
Popular Science, tammikuu 1883
The fact than an aniline black can be formed with vanadium has provoked investigation into the feasibility of the production of that metal for commerce. MM. Osmond and G. Witz have found a considecrable source of supply in the foundry-scorias of Creuzot, France, which contain two per cent of vanadic acid. The scorias have only to be treated with hydrochloric acid to obtain from them a green liquor which can be used directly in dyeing.
The fact than an aniline black can be formed with vanadium has provoked investigation into the feasibility of the production of that metal for commerce. MM. Osmond and G. Witz have found a considecrable source of supply in the foundry-scorias of Creuzot, France, which contain two per cent of vanadic acid. The scorias have only to be treated with hydrochloric acid to obtain from them a green liquor which can be used directly in dyeing.
Olivier: The Evolution of Chemical Truth.
Popular Science, lokakuu 1890
By M. Louis Olivier.
In his Lectures on Chemical Philosophy, J. B. Dumas has taken notice of the "singular contrast which is to be remarked among ancient peoples between the flourishing condition of industrial chemistry and the entire absence of theoretical chemistry." Empiricism, commanded by the necessities of material life, had, in fact, to precede the disinterested speculations of the reasoning powers. In this way the Phœnicians and Egyptians made discoveries of great significance in the arts of metallurgy, glass-working, and dyeing, without being guided by any scientific light. They interpreted them in a mystical sense, conformable to their religious conceptions of nature. Whatever we may think of their theories, we can not forget the positive bases of them; for the rational science of our century has been derived from their observations, winnowed by the ages. The facts have resisted the assaults of time, while the magic, the theurig doctrines, found to be sterile, have gradually disappeared to give place at last to the fruitful idea of natural laws. It was a curious metamorphosis, in which astrology, alchemy, and the old medicine predicating the virtues of stones and talismans, mark transition from the ancient to the modern mind.
* Les Origines de l'Alchemic (Origins of Alchemy).It is with great interest that we follow with M. Berthelot* the evolution that has thus taken place in chemistry from the ancient Orientals to the Greeks, and from them to us; for it is associated with the development of philosophical ideas, consequently with the history of the human mind. From the time when alchemy in a somewhat sudden fashion made its appearance in the world, till the moment of the fall of the Roman Empire, we know very nearly what it was, but are hardly certain whence it came. The study of which we are about to give an account assigns for it a triple origin: the industrial processes of the ancient Egyptians, the speculative theories of the Greek philosophers, and the mystic reveries of the Alexandrines and Gnostics. This conclusion is derived from the attentive examination of documents that have not been studied before with this point in view; among which are Lepsius's memoir on the metals in antiquity, Egyptian papyruses in Paris and Leyden, and Greek manuscripts in the French National Library and St. Mark's Library in Venice. M. Berthelot has compared with these texts, on one side, the beliefs of the first alchemists concerning the origin of their art; and, on the other, their positive knowledge, as well as the theories accepted in the second and third centuries of the Christian era. The deductions from these different sources are quite concordant.
ZOsimus the Panopolitan, "the oldest of authentic chemists," wrote, three hundred years after Christ, that "the Scriptures teach that there is a certain race of demons that have commerce with women. Hermes has spoken of them in his book on nature. The ancient and holy Scroptures relate that certain angels, smitten with love for women, came down upon the earth and taught them the works of nature; on this account, they were driven from heaven and condemned to perpetual exile. From this intercourse sprang the race of giants. The book in which they taught the arts is called Chema, whence the name Chema, which is applied to the most excellent art." This idea of sinning angels who revealed the occult arts and sciences to the mortals, is found in several countries. It is "in harmony with the old biblical myth of the tree of knowledge placed in the garden, the fruit of which when eaten brought about the fall of man."
The Theban papyruses at Leipsic attribute the same mystical character - a kind of seal of its Eastern origin - to alchemy. It was Hermes Trismegistes who made known practical metallurgical processes, the hermetic science, the mysterious art of transmutation. The Egyptian priests, who were instructed in it, had to take an oath to keep the secret of it. This custom was preserved among the Neoplatonists and magicians of the fourth century, and the alchemists f the middle ages and the Renaissance.
Many of the traditions held in honor among the alchemists seem to have been borrowed from the Theban priests. The number four was sacred with both. The philosopher's stone was called the Egyptian stone in the middle ages. The alchemic sign for water was the hieroglyph for that substance. The sign for tin, which has been transferred to the metal mercury, was also the hieroglyph for the planet Mercury; and a similar identity is observable between the sign for gold and the hieroglyph for the sun. Osiris was the synonym for lead, sulphur, etc.
This mystic relationship of the metals and the planets goes back to the Babylonians, and the idea was perpetuated. Pindas mentioned the relation between gold and the sun; and Proclus, in his commentary on the Timæus, wrote, "The sun produces gold, the moon silver, Saturn lead, and Mars iron."
The symbol for the philosophical egg appears to have originated in Chaldea, and to have been introduced thence into Egypt. So was the idea of the microcosm made in the image of the macrocosm. Thus the Babylonians and the Greeks of Egypt, as well as the Alexandrians and the Chinese, held to these aphorisms, afterward so dear to the alchemists, concerning the generation and transmutation of metals, the panacea, and the elixir of long life.
Traces of Jewish traditions, mingled with Eastern fables, can be found in some of the alchemic beliefs of about the eleventh century. Several papyruses mention important receipts as included in the pretended Secret Book of Moses; a Greek manuscript of St. Mark's represents Mary the Jewess, to whom the invention of the water-bath is attributed, as saying: "Do not touch the philosopher's stone with your hands; you are not of out race, you are not of the race of Abraham." According to Zosimus, the sacred art of the Egyptians and the power of gold that resulted from it were delivered to Jews by a fraud, and they revealed them to the rest of the world. This confluence of the Chaldo-Egyptian and Jewish sources of alchemy took effect in the first three centuries of Christianity, or at the time when Gnosticism was flourishing at Alexandria. The first alchemists seem, in fact, to have nearly all fallen under the influence of Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. The symbolical forms of universal life, the allegorical figures in which the philosophical sense of things was hidden, were abundant in their writings; and here and there in them we meet all sorts of Gnostic signs, from the image of the world without beginning or end, represented by the dragon Uraboros, a serpent biting his tail, to the eight-rayed stars and magic circles of Cleopatra's "chrysopæus." The introduction of Gnostic ideas into the theories of the alchemists undoubtedly accounts for their inclination to explain the hidden properties of nature by signs of double or triple meaning.
The same tendency is evident in the Greek alchemists, whose memory has been preserved by the ancient manuscripts. The St. Mark's manuscripts cite as among the most famous of these, after hermes, John, Arch-priest of Thutia, and Democritus, the celebrated philosopher of Abdera. But they also introduce to us Zosimus, the experimenter, the historian and biographer of Plato, Olympiadorus, and Stephanus, authors of important memoirs on the art of making gold. For that purpose they employed, according to the manuscripts, a projecting powder endowed with the mysterious power of impregnating bodies. This powder was prepared in the Thebaid, at places which, according to Agatharcides, were centers of metallurgical enterprices.
In the ninth century all the documents are found in the hands of the Arabs, who became the depositories and continuers of Grecian science. Mussulman civilization has handed down to us the history of the mythic alchemists, their mysterious formulas, and the practices which they adopted for blanching and yellowing metals - that is, for changing them into silver and gold. In their conceptions of matter, the Arabs of Spain and Syria followed in part the philosophical systems of pagan Greece; and their authors freely quoted Aristotle, Heraclitus, Xenocrates, Diogenes, and Democritus. The story of their doctrines and brilliant discoveries is told in all histories of chemistry.
M. Berthelot's detailed review of the positive facts which alchemy received from antiquity makes it manifest that Egypt left an inestimable treasure to the world. The priests of Thebes and Memphis made great advances in the knowledge of the art of extracting metals, of forming alloys, and of making vessels and tools out of them. They distinguished crude gold from refined gold, and could work that metal up into a variety of articles. They fed the hope that they might be able to obtain it by coloring asemon, or silver, yellow. Of the latter metal they made money, the value of which was guaranteed by an impressed image. They extracted gold and silver from electrum, the mineral containing both substances, but which presented to their eyes the appearance of a metal like them. This was what led them to the notion of transmutation.
The Egyptians designated as chesbet several kinds of blue or green sapphires colored with cobalt or copper. They made incrustations, amulets, necklaces, and various ornaments of them. They succeeded in compounding an artificial chesbet resembling the natural stone. A fact worthy of remak in the matter is, that this was done by "the assimilation of a colored substance, a precious stone, an enamel, a vitrified color, with metals." This assimilation suggested the new idea of dyeing; "for the imitation of the sapphire rests on the coloring of a large mass, colorless by itself, but constituting the vitrifiable basis, which we dye by the aid of a small wuantity of coloring matter. With enamels and colored glasses thus prepared, the natural precious stones were reproduced; they were covered with figures, with objects of earth or stone, and were incrusted with metallic objects."
Among the minerals and metals known to the Egyptians are also mentioned the emerald, malachite, copper in alloys, iron, lead, tin, and mercury, the mobility of which caused it to be regarded as living; whence the name quicksilver. Their tinctorial art included dyeing in yellow, white, and black; and they could also dye purple by means of alkanet and archil. All these changes brought about in the appearance of bodies seemed to be modifications of their properties, and consequently to legitimize the expectation that the idea of the fixedness of the properties of bodies is wholly modern. Even Bacon wrote in the seventeenth century: "Observing all the qualities of gold, we find that it is yellow, very heavy, of a certain specific gravity, malleable, and ductile to a certain degree; and whoever is acquainted with the formulas and processes necessary to produce at awill the yellow color, the high specific gravity, the ductility, and knows, also, the means of producing these qualities in different degrees, will perceive the means and be able to take the measures necessary to unite these qualities into a definite body; and from this will result its transmutation into gold." This was, in fact, the dream and the mastering passion of the alchemy of the middle ages and the Renaissance.
These conceptions were very ancient, and must be looked in their original forms in the Greek philosophy. the germ of the doctrine of transmutation is in the Timæus. It rests on the idea of primitive matter, the indifferent supporter of all the qualities that can be heaped upon it. Plato insists upon the idea, which he regards as fundamental, that "the thing which receives all bodies never comes out from its own substance. It is the common basis of all the different substances, and is deprived of all the forms which it would receive otherwise." The primary matter was supposed to be composed of fire, which made it visible, earth, which made it tangible, air, and water, which assured the union of the earth and the fire - these four elements being formed of minute corpuscles, susceptible of changing into one another; for we see, says Plato, "that water, in condensing, becomes stone and earth, and in melting and dividing itself up, becomes wind and air. Air inflamed becomes fire; fire, condensed and extinguished, resumes the form of air; air, thickening, changes into mist, and then flows as water; and from water are formed earth and stones."
All bodies were believed to be the seat of a transformation of this kind. Under the influence of this thought, Proclus wrote, "Things being never able to preserve a nature of their own, who shall dare affirm that one of them is this rather than the other?" It is, therefore, by virtue of a necessary law of nature that bodies are modified, and transformation is possible. This determinist conception was afterward mingled in the minds of the alchemists with Oriental mysticism; but it must be remarked that it presented, in the Greek philosophers Thales, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Plato, and their immediate heirs, a really scientific character. Michael Psellus was faithful to their doctrine when he whote to the Patriarch Xiphilin, in a letter which was used as the Preface to the Collection of the Greek Alchemists: "The changes of nature are made naturally, not by the virtue of an incantation or a miracle, or of a secret formula. There is an art of transmutation. ... You want me to teach you the art that resides in fire and furnaces, and which produces the destruction of substances and the transmutation of their natures. Some believe that this is a secret knowledge, gained by initiation, which they have not tried to reduce to a rational form; which seems to me an enormous error. For myself, I try first to learn the causes, and to deduce from them a rational explanation of the facts. I sought it in the nature of the four elements, from which everything comes by combination, and to which everything returns by solution."
From Greece alchemy then received, with the idea of a primary matter and the system of atoms, a whole contingent of rationalistic notions which subsquently modified more or less Christian mysticism and the traditions of the East. The effort of the alchemists of the middle ages to divest the metals of their individual qualities in order to reach the primitive matter, the mercury of the old philosophers, was then in harmony with Plato's metaphysics. But, in the operations they performed for that end, they could only determine the indefinite transformation of the elements, and they represented the mysterious process under the symbolical form of a ring-serpent which has neither beginning nor end. This hopeless picture of chemistry did not cease to be true till the end of the last century. By introducing the balance into laboratories, Lavoisier demonstrated that the weight of metals is invariable, and, in a general way, that the origin of all chemical phenomena lies in the reactions of a small number of undecomposable bodies, the weight and properties of which are constant.
This great discovery sapped the alchemic doctrine of the transmutation at its very foundations. It is, however, still permissible to ask if the present elements, as yet undecomposed, are really simple bodies. If Prout's hypothesis that they are polymers of hydrogen could be demonstrated, the hope of passing from one to the other would be entirely legitimate. But the recently carefully made determinations of the equivalents of simple bodies by Dumas and Stas have weakened that theory. The laws of specific heat, moreover, do not permit us to see in out present simple bodies polymers of the same substance comparable to known polymers. The specific heat of the last increases, according to Woestyn's law, with the complex structure of their molecule, while the specific heat of simple bodies varies, according to Dulong and Petit's law, inversely as their equivalents.
We may, nevertheless, conceive the unity of matter in another sense. Some chemists oppose to Prout's hypothesis a new and more comprehesive one, which consists in regarding the elements as states of stable equilibrium in which matter exhibits itself. "In this order of thought," says M. Berthelot, "a body reputed simple could be destroyed but not decomposed in the ordinary sense. At the moment of destruction it would at once transform itself into one or several other simple bodies, identcal with or resembling the existing elements. But the atomic weights of the new elements could not offer any commensurable relation with the atomic weight of the primary body from which they are produced by metamorphosis. More than this: by working under different conditions we might see appear sometimes one system, sometimes another, of simple bodies, developed by the transformation of another element. Only the absolute weight would remain invariable in the course of the transmutations."
Even under this hypothesis the hope of forming simple bodies need not seem chimerical. Unfortuntely, we have no more reasons for encouraging it than for condemning it. All that can be said respecting it is that the present condition of science does not allow us to discern any method that will lead to the end. Would it not be wiser, then, to make out theories more complete rather than venture into this darkness without a guiding thread? It is no mystery to any one that they greatly need improvement. The imponderable fluids have only just passed away; the ether, too, seems to be already withdrawing, taking along with it, perhaps, the atom of the chemists; and does it not seem that everything is about to be explained by motion?
M. Berthelot discusses these questions with his well-known vigor and originality. his work, erudite and pointed, is particularly instructive to the thinker. He in fact restores to our view the affiliation of the systems that were conceived at the birth of chemistry, and which have been revived at our time in the effort to resolve the eternal problem of the constitution of matter. - Translated for The Popular Science Monthly from the Revue Scientifique.
By M. Louis Olivier.
In his Lectures on Chemical Philosophy, J. B. Dumas has taken notice of the "singular contrast which is to be remarked among ancient peoples between the flourishing condition of industrial chemistry and the entire absence of theoretical chemistry." Empiricism, commanded by the necessities of material life, had, in fact, to precede the disinterested speculations of the reasoning powers. In this way the Phœnicians and Egyptians made discoveries of great significance in the arts of metallurgy, glass-working, and dyeing, without being guided by any scientific light. They interpreted them in a mystical sense, conformable to their religious conceptions of nature. Whatever we may think of their theories, we can not forget the positive bases of them; for the rational science of our century has been derived from their observations, winnowed by the ages. The facts have resisted the assaults of time, while the magic, the theurig doctrines, found to be sterile, have gradually disappeared to give place at last to the fruitful idea of natural laws. It was a curious metamorphosis, in which astrology, alchemy, and the old medicine predicating the virtues of stones and talismans, mark transition from the ancient to the modern mind.
* Les Origines de l'Alchemic (Origins of Alchemy).It is with great interest that we follow with M. Berthelot* the evolution that has thus taken place in chemistry from the ancient Orientals to the Greeks, and from them to us; for it is associated with the development of philosophical ideas, consequently with the history of the human mind. From the time when alchemy in a somewhat sudden fashion made its appearance in the world, till the moment of the fall of the Roman Empire, we know very nearly what it was, but are hardly certain whence it came. The study of which we are about to give an account assigns for it a triple origin: the industrial processes of the ancient Egyptians, the speculative theories of the Greek philosophers, and the mystic reveries of the Alexandrines and Gnostics. This conclusion is derived from the attentive examination of documents that have not been studied before with this point in view; among which are Lepsius's memoir on the metals in antiquity, Egyptian papyruses in Paris and Leyden, and Greek manuscripts in the French National Library and St. Mark's Library in Venice. M. Berthelot has compared with these texts, on one side, the beliefs of the first alchemists concerning the origin of their art; and, on the other, their positive knowledge, as well as the theories accepted in the second and third centuries of the Christian era. The deductions from these different sources are quite concordant.
ZOsimus the Panopolitan, "the oldest of authentic chemists," wrote, three hundred years after Christ, that "the Scriptures teach that there is a certain race of demons that have commerce with women. Hermes has spoken of them in his book on nature. The ancient and holy Scroptures relate that certain angels, smitten with love for women, came down upon the earth and taught them the works of nature; on this account, they were driven from heaven and condemned to perpetual exile. From this intercourse sprang the race of giants. The book in which they taught the arts is called Chema, whence the name Chema, which is applied to the most excellent art." This idea of sinning angels who revealed the occult arts and sciences to the mortals, is found in several countries. It is "in harmony with the old biblical myth of the tree of knowledge placed in the garden, the fruit of which when eaten brought about the fall of man."
The Theban papyruses at Leipsic attribute the same mystical character - a kind of seal of its Eastern origin - to alchemy. It was Hermes Trismegistes who made known practical metallurgical processes, the hermetic science, the mysterious art of transmutation. The Egyptian priests, who were instructed in it, had to take an oath to keep the secret of it. This custom was preserved among the Neoplatonists and magicians of the fourth century, and the alchemists f the middle ages and the Renaissance.
Many of the traditions held in honor among the alchemists seem to have been borrowed from the Theban priests. The number four was sacred with both. The philosopher's stone was called the Egyptian stone in the middle ages. The alchemic sign for water was the hieroglyph for that substance. The sign for tin, which has been transferred to the metal mercury, was also the hieroglyph for the planet Mercury; and a similar identity is observable between the sign for gold and the hieroglyph for the sun. Osiris was the synonym for lead, sulphur, etc.
This mystic relationship of the metals and the planets goes back to the Babylonians, and the idea was perpetuated. Pindas mentioned the relation between gold and the sun; and Proclus, in his commentary on the Timæus, wrote, "The sun produces gold, the moon silver, Saturn lead, and Mars iron."
The symbol for the philosophical egg appears to have originated in Chaldea, and to have been introduced thence into Egypt. So was the idea of the microcosm made in the image of the macrocosm. Thus the Babylonians and the Greeks of Egypt, as well as the Alexandrians and the Chinese, held to these aphorisms, afterward so dear to the alchemists, concerning the generation and transmutation of metals, the panacea, and the elixir of long life.
Traces of Jewish traditions, mingled with Eastern fables, can be found in some of the alchemic beliefs of about the eleventh century. Several papyruses mention important receipts as included in the pretended Secret Book of Moses; a Greek manuscript of St. Mark's represents Mary the Jewess, to whom the invention of the water-bath is attributed, as saying: "Do not touch the philosopher's stone with your hands; you are not of out race, you are not of the race of Abraham." According to Zosimus, the sacred art of the Egyptians and the power of gold that resulted from it were delivered to Jews by a fraud, and they revealed them to the rest of the world. This confluence of the Chaldo-Egyptian and Jewish sources of alchemy took effect in the first three centuries of Christianity, or at the time when Gnosticism was flourishing at Alexandria. The first alchemists seem, in fact, to have nearly all fallen under the influence of Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. The symbolical forms of universal life, the allegorical figures in which the philosophical sense of things was hidden, were abundant in their writings; and here and there in them we meet all sorts of Gnostic signs, from the image of the world without beginning or end, represented by the dragon Uraboros, a serpent biting his tail, to the eight-rayed stars and magic circles of Cleopatra's "chrysopæus." The introduction of Gnostic ideas into the theories of the alchemists undoubtedly accounts for their inclination to explain the hidden properties of nature by signs of double or triple meaning.
The same tendency is evident in the Greek alchemists, whose memory has been preserved by the ancient manuscripts. The St. Mark's manuscripts cite as among the most famous of these, after hermes, John, Arch-priest of Thutia, and Democritus, the celebrated philosopher of Abdera. But they also introduce to us Zosimus, the experimenter, the historian and biographer of Plato, Olympiadorus, and Stephanus, authors of important memoirs on the art of making gold. For that purpose they employed, according to the manuscripts, a projecting powder endowed with the mysterious power of impregnating bodies. This powder was prepared in the Thebaid, at places which, according to Agatharcides, were centers of metallurgical enterprices.
In the ninth century all the documents are found in the hands of the Arabs, who became the depositories and continuers of Grecian science. Mussulman civilization has handed down to us the history of the mythic alchemists, their mysterious formulas, and the practices which they adopted for blanching and yellowing metals - that is, for changing them into silver and gold. In their conceptions of matter, the Arabs of Spain and Syria followed in part the philosophical systems of pagan Greece; and their authors freely quoted Aristotle, Heraclitus, Xenocrates, Diogenes, and Democritus. The story of their doctrines and brilliant discoveries is told in all histories of chemistry.
M. Berthelot's detailed review of the positive facts which alchemy received from antiquity makes it manifest that Egypt left an inestimable treasure to the world. The priests of Thebes and Memphis made great advances in the knowledge of the art of extracting metals, of forming alloys, and of making vessels and tools out of them. They distinguished crude gold from refined gold, and could work that metal up into a variety of articles. They fed the hope that they might be able to obtain it by coloring asemon, or silver, yellow. Of the latter metal they made money, the value of which was guaranteed by an impressed image. They extracted gold and silver from electrum, the mineral containing both substances, but which presented to their eyes the appearance of a metal like them. This was what led them to the notion of transmutation.
The Egyptians designated as chesbet several kinds of blue or green sapphires colored with cobalt or copper. They made incrustations, amulets, necklaces, and various ornaments of them. They succeeded in compounding an artificial chesbet resembling the natural stone. A fact worthy of remak in the matter is, that this was done by "the assimilation of a colored substance, a precious stone, an enamel, a vitrified color, with metals." This assimilation suggested the new idea of dyeing; "for the imitation of the sapphire rests on the coloring of a large mass, colorless by itself, but constituting the vitrifiable basis, which we dye by the aid of a small wuantity of coloring matter. With enamels and colored glasses thus prepared, the natural precious stones were reproduced; they were covered with figures, with objects of earth or stone, and were incrusted with metallic objects."
Among the minerals and metals known to the Egyptians are also mentioned the emerald, malachite, copper in alloys, iron, lead, tin, and mercury, the mobility of which caused it to be regarded as living; whence the name quicksilver. Their tinctorial art included dyeing in yellow, white, and black; and they could also dye purple by means of alkanet and archil. All these changes brought about in the appearance of bodies seemed to be modifications of their properties, and consequently to legitimize the expectation that the idea of the fixedness of the properties of bodies is wholly modern. Even Bacon wrote in the seventeenth century: "Observing all the qualities of gold, we find that it is yellow, very heavy, of a certain specific gravity, malleable, and ductile to a certain degree; and whoever is acquainted with the formulas and processes necessary to produce at awill the yellow color, the high specific gravity, the ductility, and knows, also, the means of producing these qualities in different degrees, will perceive the means and be able to take the measures necessary to unite these qualities into a definite body; and from this will result its transmutation into gold." This was, in fact, the dream and the mastering passion of the alchemy of the middle ages and the Renaissance.
These conceptions were very ancient, and must be looked in their original forms in the Greek philosophy. the germ of the doctrine of transmutation is in the Timæus. It rests on the idea of primitive matter, the indifferent supporter of all the qualities that can be heaped upon it. Plato insists upon the idea, which he regards as fundamental, that "the thing which receives all bodies never comes out from its own substance. It is the common basis of all the different substances, and is deprived of all the forms which it would receive otherwise." The primary matter was supposed to be composed of fire, which made it visible, earth, which made it tangible, air, and water, which assured the union of the earth and the fire - these four elements being formed of minute corpuscles, susceptible of changing into one another; for we see, says Plato, "that water, in condensing, becomes stone and earth, and in melting and dividing itself up, becomes wind and air. Air inflamed becomes fire; fire, condensed and extinguished, resumes the form of air; air, thickening, changes into mist, and then flows as water; and from water are formed earth and stones."
All bodies were believed to be the seat of a transformation of this kind. Under the influence of this thought, Proclus wrote, "Things being never able to preserve a nature of their own, who shall dare affirm that one of them is this rather than the other?" It is, therefore, by virtue of a necessary law of nature that bodies are modified, and transformation is possible. This determinist conception was afterward mingled in the minds of the alchemists with Oriental mysticism; but it must be remarked that it presented, in the Greek philosophers Thales, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Plato, and their immediate heirs, a really scientific character. Michael Psellus was faithful to their doctrine when he whote to the Patriarch Xiphilin, in a letter which was used as the Preface to the Collection of the Greek Alchemists: "The changes of nature are made naturally, not by the virtue of an incantation or a miracle, or of a secret formula. There is an art of transmutation. ... You want me to teach you the art that resides in fire and furnaces, and which produces the destruction of substances and the transmutation of their natures. Some believe that this is a secret knowledge, gained by initiation, which they have not tried to reduce to a rational form; which seems to me an enormous error. For myself, I try first to learn the causes, and to deduce from them a rational explanation of the facts. I sought it in the nature of the four elements, from which everything comes by combination, and to which everything returns by solution."
From Greece alchemy then received, with the idea of a primary matter and the system of atoms, a whole contingent of rationalistic notions which subsquently modified more or less Christian mysticism and the traditions of the East. The effort of the alchemists of the middle ages to divest the metals of their individual qualities in order to reach the primitive matter, the mercury of the old philosophers, was then in harmony with Plato's metaphysics. But, in the operations they performed for that end, they could only determine the indefinite transformation of the elements, and they represented the mysterious process under the symbolical form of a ring-serpent which has neither beginning nor end. This hopeless picture of chemistry did not cease to be true till the end of the last century. By introducing the balance into laboratories, Lavoisier demonstrated that the weight of metals is invariable, and, in a general way, that the origin of all chemical phenomena lies in the reactions of a small number of undecomposable bodies, the weight and properties of which are constant.
This great discovery sapped the alchemic doctrine of the transmutation at its very foundations. It is, however, still permissible to ask if the present elements, as yet undecomposed, are really simple bodies. If Prout's hypothesis that they are polymers of hydrogen could be demonstrated, the hope of passing from one to the other would be entirely legitimate. But the recently carefully made determinations of the equivalents of simple bodies by Dumas and Stas have weakened that theory. The laws of specific heat, moreover, do not permit us to see in out present simple bodies polymers of the same substance comparable to known polymers. The specific heat of the last increases, according to Woestyn's law, with the complex structure of their molecule, while the specific heat of simple bodies varies, according to Dulong and Petit's law, inversely as their equivalents.
We may, nevertheless, conceive the unity of matter in another sense. Some chemists oppose to Prout's hypothesis a new and more comprehesive one, which consists in regarding the elements as states of stable equilibrium in which matter exhibits itself. "In this order of thought," says M. Berthelot, "a body reputed simple could be destroyed but not decomposed in the ordinary sense. At the moment of destruction it would at once transform itself into one or several other simple bodies, identcal with or resembling the existing elements. But the atomic weights of the new elements could not offer any commensurable relation with the atomic weight of the primary body from which they are produced by metamorphosis. More than this: by working under different conditions we might see appear sometimes one system, sometimes another, of simple bodies, developed by the transformation of another element. Only the absolute weight would remain invariable in the course of the transmutations."
Even under this hypothesis the hope of forming simple bodies need not seem chimerical. Unfortuntely, we have no more reasons for encouraging it than for condemning it. All that can be said respecting it is that the present condition of science does not allow us to discern any method that will lead to the end. Would it not be wiser, then, to make out theories more complete rather than venture into this darkness without a guiding thread? It is no mystery to any one that they greatly need improvement. The imponderable fluids have only just passed away; the ether, too, seems to be already withdrawing, taking along with it, perhaps, the atom of the chemists; and does it not seem that everything is about to be explained by motion?
M. Berthelot discusses these questions with his well-known vigor and originality. his work, erudite and pointed, is particularly instructive to the thinker. He in fact restores to our view the affiliation of the systems that were conceived at the birth of chemistry, and which have been revived at our time in the effort to resolve the eternal problem of the constitution of matter. - Translated for The Popular Science Monthly from the Revue Scientifique.